c; w (5 



D.B.D1X0N andThos. G.GRJERi 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

®]^itp. Gcpiiriji^f 1|0*- 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



VADE MECUM 

A WORK OF REFERENCE 
For the Use of 



ARCHITECTS, ARCHITECTURAL IRON WORKERS, BUILDERS, BLACKSMITHS, 

BOOKKEEPERS, BOILER MAKERS, CONTRACTORS, CIVIL, MECHANICAL, 

HYDRAULIC, MINING, STATIONARY, MARINE AND LOCOMOTIVE 

ENGINEERS, FOREMEN OF MACHINE SHOPS, FIREMEN, MASTER 

MECHANICS OF RAILROADS, MASTER CAR BUILDERS, 

MACHINE SHOP PROPRIETORS, MACHINERY JOBBERS, 

MACHINERY SALESMEN, MACHINISTS, PATTERN 

MAKERS, RAILWAY SUPPLY AGENTS, RAILWAY 

SUPERINTENDENTS, ROADMASTERS, 

SUPERINTENDENTS OF FACTORIES 

AND BUSINESS MEN 

GENERALLY. 



l^ 



D 



COMPILED AND^RANGED BY 

D. Bi^ DIXON 



WITH A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE ON 

Electricity 

BY / 

THOMAS G. GRIER 



CHICAGO '^My^^^^'^ 

LAIRD & LEE, Publish^: 

1893 



^ry' 






Vp 



s ■ 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the Year Eighteen 

Hundred and Ninety-three, by Laird & Lee, in the 

Office of the Librarian of Congress 

AT Washington. 



PREFACE. 



This book is compiled from the most authentic, scientific 
and mechanical sources. The matter contained therein has 
passed the careful scrutiny of well known manufacturers 
and professional men. 

It is not intended to be an educational work, but rather 
a work of reference for the use of professional and business 
men, as well as operative mechanics. This work is made to 
comprehend as far as possible, matter entering into every 
da\' practice in the salesroom, office, and workshop, and is 
the result of many years' actual experience in all lines 
treated of. The work commends itself particularly to 
Architects, Architectural Iron Workers, Builders, Contract- 
ors, Engineers, Railway Supply Agents, Superintendents, 
Master Mechanics, Machinists and Business men generally. 

D. B. Dixoisr. 

November, 1892. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Arithmetic. — Common Fractions 17 

Decimal Fractions •. 17 

Table of Binary and Decimal Fractions 19 

Roman Cardinal Numbers 20 

Table of Prime Numbers from 1 to 1000 20 

" United States Money 21 

" English Money 21 

" Avoirdupois "Weight 21 

" Troy " 22 

" Apothecaries " 22 

" Linear or Long Measure 23 

" Surveyors' Measure 23 

" Time " 24 

" Square " .... 25 

" Dry " 25 

" Cubic " 26 

" Liquid " 26 

" Cloth ♦' 27 

" Circular " 27 

Miscellaneous Tables 27 

What is a Billion? 29 

Properties of Numbers 29 

Table of Foreign Weights and Measures 29 

Duodecimals 31 

Percentage 32 

Simple Interest 32 

Compound Interest 33 

Time in which Money doubles at Interest 34 

Taxes 35 

Square Root 35 

Cube " 37 

Time Table 38 

Value of Articles per Piece, reckoning from Price per Dozen 39 

Axles, Weight of Railroad Car. and Common 39 

Angles, and Channel Bars, Weight of light Pattern 40 

Angle Iron, Weight of Square-Root 40 

Alloys 40 

Anchors, Weight of. 41 

Air 42 

Air under Pressure, Velocity of. 42 

Aluminum, Weight of Pure, and Al. Bronze, in Sheets 43 

7 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Acre, Dimensions of Lots containing one 44 

Boilers, Specifications of Tubular Stationary 44 

" " " Cylinder 44 

" " " Two-Flue 45 

" " " Tubular, with 4-inch Tubes 45 

" " " Six-Inch Flue 45 

" " " Scotch Marine 45 

" " " Submerged Tubular 46 

" Plain Vertical Tubular 46 

" '• " Portable 46 

" " " " Locomotive Style 46 

*' Number of Brick required for Setting 47 

Boiler Power 47 

Boilers, Horse Power of. Table giving the 48 

Boiler Pressures, Table of. 49 

Boilers, Shells of. : 50 

" Heating Surface of. 51 

Boiler Heads, Weight of Circular Steel 53 

" " " " " Iron 54 

Boiler, To find the Strain on the Cylindrical Part of a 54 

" Plate, To find the Thickness of, for a given Pressure ; 54 

" To find the Bursting Pressure per Square Inch on a 54 

Boilers 55 

Boiler, To find the Diameter of Feed Pipe for a 56 

Boilers, Feed Water for..^. 56 

Boiler Braces 56 

Boilers, Porcupine 57 

Table of the strongest Form and Proportion of riveted Joints for 5 7 

Boiler Grate Bars 57 

Boilers, To find the Consumption of Coal per Horse Power per Hour lor 57 

Boiler Incrustation and Scale 58 

" Scale Solvent 58 

Beams, Weight and Dimensions of I (E3''e) 58 

Beams, to Find the Safe Load for Cast-iron 60 

Beams, Wooden 61 

Brass, Weight of Sheet and Bar 63 

Bolts, Weight of 100 ..; 64 

Bolts and Nuts, a System of. 67 

Btlts, Horse Power of. 67 

" Driving Power of Oak Tanned Leather 71 

Belting, Width and Velocity of 72 

Balls, Weight of. 72 

Bells, Pure Bell Metal 73 

Blowers, Sturtevant Pressure 73 

Blower and Exhausting Fans 74 

Blowers. Monogram 75 

Diameter of Blast Pipes for 76 

Ciipola and Forge 78 

" Speeds and Capacities of Buffalo 79 

Brick Laying 80 

Brickwork and Plastering 80 

Bible Terms, Definition of 80 

Board Measure 82 

Table of Logs Reduced to 84 

Bonds, Table Showing Investment Value of 86 

Bodies, Falling ...;...... ;.....:.: ;.. S8 

Boxes, Capacities of. ...,.,., !,.......i...... ..i.'.... 90 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Coins, Table of Foreign 90 

Cross Ties per Mile of Railroad Track 91 

Chains, \Yeight and Strength of Iron 91 

C hain , Short Link 91 

•' Proofs and Weights of. 92 

•' Cleveland Coil and Cable 92 

Chimneys 93 

" Proportions for 93 

" To Find Horse Power of. 94 

Cylinders, Table of Areas of. 94 

" " Contents of. ■ 95 

Castings, Weight of, by Weight of Patterns 95 

Circles, Circumferences and Areas of. 96 

Table of Areas of, and of the Sides of Squares of the Same Area 112 

Diam.andCircum.of, and Contents in Gallons — for OneFoot inDepth 114 

Copper, Weight of Sheet 115 

Braziers' Sheet, Weight of. 116 

Gutter 116 

Tinned 116 

Planished 116 

" Classification of. 117 

Bolt, Weight of per Lineal Foot 117 

Cables, Bridge Wire 117 

Galvanized Steel 118 

Crucibles, Sizes of. 118 

Cordage, W'eight and Strength of 119 

Coals, Table of American 120 

Columns, Safe Load in Tons, for Cast Iron 121 

Strength of Cast Iron 122 

" Hollov^r Cylindrical Wrought Iron 124 

Chords, Table of Long 125 

Curves, Railroad 126 

Channel Bars 127 

Cemtnt, Hydraulic 128 

Cement for Repairing Broken Rocks, Minerals, etc 131 

" " Cementing Railing Tops, etc 131 

Casing, Wrought Iron Lap Welded 132 

Weil 132 

Castings, Shrinkage of. 133 

Combustibles, Table of Composition of 133 

Calendar , 134 

Car Load 135 

Decimal Equivalents, Table of. 135 

Decimal Parts of a Foot, etc 137 

Drill Rods, Sizes of Crescent 138 

Drills, Twist 139 

Drill, to Find the Size of, etc 140 

Drills, Taper Shank 140 

Spted of , 141 

Drill Sockets, Reamer for.* 141 

Discount Tables 142 

Dies, Speed of Bolt Cutting 145 

" Proportions of Solid 146 

Dollar, The Almighty 146 

Dollars, Paper and Coin , 147 

Dollar, to Find the Commercial Value of the Silver 148 

Discs, Smooth Iron t4§ 



10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Electrical Department 427 — 480 

Alternates 458 

Amount of Drop in Wires with a Given Current 448 

Ampere Meter 465 

Amperes per Lamp, Table of. 430 

Amperes per Motor 443, 444 

Ampere, the 427 

Armatures 459 

Balancing of Armatures 459 

Belt, kind to be used 462 

Binding AYires , 459 

Brushes, , 460 

Candle Power 429 

Circular Mill 434 

Commutators , 460 

Comparative Table of Diameter and Weight of Copper Wire 448 

Conductors and Insulators, or Non-Conductors 433 

Converters 454 

Copper Wire, Resistance of. 434 

Counter Electromotive Force 461 

Decimal Equivalents and the Metric System 451 

Detail Apparatus and Instruments 464 

Determination of Wires 435 

Dynamo Electric Machinerj- 453 

Dynamo, The 456 

Electric Alotors 460 

General Remarks on Motors 462 

Horse Power 431 

Induction 453 

Insulation 468 

Lightning Arrester 466 

Pleasures of C apacity 45 2 

Measures of Length 452 

Measures of Surface 452 

Method of Preparing a Wiring Table 435 

Methods of Wiring 431, 432, 433 

Metric System — Weights 452 

Minimum Size Wire for Motor Services, 444 

Ohm's Law 429 

Ohm, the 427 

Resistance of Copper Wire, the 434 

Rheostats and Resistance Boxes 467 

Rules Adopted by the National Electric Light Association; 469 to 480 

Safety Devices 465 

Simplified Copper Wire Equations 447 

Size of Belts— Table 463 

Starting a Motor 462 

Station Switches 467 

Stopping a Alotor 464 

Table of Dimensions and Resistances of Piirc Copper Wire 449, 450 

Turning a Commutator 464 

Units of Measurement 451 

Volt Meter 464 

Volt, the 427 

Watt, the 428 

Wiringfor Motor Circuits 443 

■ Wiring for Motor Services 445, 446 

Wiring Table, Method of Preparing 435 

Wiring Tables 437,438 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 11 



Page. 

Wiring Table for Primary Circuits 439, 440, 441, 442 

Engines, Horizontal Stationary Side Valve 149 

Automatic High Speed , 150 

Engine, The Steam 150 

Cylinder, To find the Area of.. 150 

A Right Hand 151 

" Running "under" and "over" 151 

" Horse "Power of an 151 

Engines, Locomotive 152 

Horse Power of, for different nations 152 

Expansion of Substances by Heat 153 

Electricity 153 

Etching ^ 154 

Fans, Mine Ventilating ^ 154 

Flanges, Cast Iron Steam Pipe 155 

Fuel 155 

" Saving of, by heating Feed Water ; 157 

Flues, Wrought Iron 158 

Fish Plates, Weight and Number of, per Mile 158 

Fire, Temperature of 159 

Freezing Points 159 

Friction, Morin's Laws of. 159 

Force, Centrifugal 159 

Freight, Billing railroad IQO 

Gauges, Numbers and Sizes of Wire 161 

" Steel Music Wire 162 

" Standard Saw 162 

" Jobbers' Drill 162 

" Twist Drill and Steel Drill Rod 163 

Glass, Window 164 

Grindstones 166 

Gearing 167 

Gear Wheel, To find the Pitch Diameter of a 168 

" Blank, To find the Diameter of a 171 

Grading 172 

Grades, Rise per Mile of various 180 

Gas, Illuminating 181 

Gravity, Specific 181 

" " Problems in 182 

" Table of 183 

Hawsers, Steel 187 

Heat, Effect of, on various Bodies 187 

Hot Water Heating Apparatus 188 

Heaters, Money Value of Feed Water 189 

Hammer, To find the Force of a Blow of a Steam 189 

Height to Weight in man, Table showing the Relation of 189 

Heat, Table of Latent 190 

Heating by Steam 190 

Heater, BuffalolHot Blast 192 

" Sturtevant's Hot Blast 193 

Hydraulic Ram 193 

Hydraulics 194 

Hydrostatics 196 

Iron, Weight of Flat Rolled.- 209 

?' Area " " " 215 

" Weights and Areas of Square and Round Bars of 220 

" Angle : .; ;.... 227 

" Tee ; ; 228 

" Star 228 



12 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page 

Iron, Tire 228 

" Wagon Box 229 

" Half Round, Oval and Half Oval 229 

" Hcop and Scroll 229 

" Corrugated Sheet 230 

" Galvanized Sheet 230 

" Russia '* 231 

" Plate 231 

" Table of Weight of Cast 233 

" Value of, per Gross Ton 234- 

" Weight of Steel, Wrought and Cast 236 

" Breaking and Crushing Strains of Steel and 236 

" Strength of Charcoal Pig 236 

" Weight of Sheet 238 

" Specific Gravity of 239 

' Circular Heads, Weight of Wrought 239 

Logarithms, of Numbers 240 

" Hyperbolic 243 

Longitude, Lengths of a Degree of 243 

Lapjoints, Table for Proportioning the Riveting for 244 

Locomotive, To find the Horse-Power of a 244 

Locomotives, Hauling, Capacity of 244 

" Adhesive Power of 246 

" Distribution of Weight in 246 

" Tractive Power of.. 246 

" To find the Load w^hich a, will take on a given Incline 247 

Log Line 247 

Line, A 247 

Lubricant for Milling Cutters 247 

Land, Measuring 247 

Lumber, Average Weight of, per Foot 248 

Table of Weight of 248 

Logs. Weight of. 248 

Mensuration. — To Find the Area of a Parallelogram 924 

Triangle 249 

" " " Trapezium 249 

" " " Trapezoid 249 

" " " Regular Polygon 249 

The Diameter of a Circle beingGiven to Find the Circumference 250 

The Circumference " " " " Diameter 250 

To Find the Length of any Arc of a Circle 250 

Area of a Circle 250 

" Sector 250 

" Segment of a Circle 250 

" of the Space included between the Circumference of Two 

Concentric Circles 250 

Circumference of an Ellipse, etc 250 

Area of an Ellipse, etc 250 

" a Parabola, etc 251 

" a Frustum of a Parabola 251 

Solidity of a Cube, etc 251 

" Prism 251 

Convex Surface of a Cylinder 251 

Solidity of a Cylinder 251 

Convex Surface of a Right Cone 251 

of the Frustum of a Right Cone 251 

Solidity of a Cone or Pyramid -. 251 

Frustum of a Cone or Pyramid, etc 251 

" of the " *' Pyramid, whose Sides are Regular 

Polygons 351 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 13 



Page. 

To Find the Solidity of the Frustum of a Pyramid when the Ends, etc 251 

' of a Wedge 251 

ofaPrismoid 252 

" " Convex Surface of a Sphere , 252 

" Solidity of a Sphere or Globe 252 

" " " the Segment of a Sphere 252 

" " " " Frustum " " 252 

of a Spheroid 252 

of the Middle Frustum of a Spheroid, etc 252 

of a Tetraedron 252 

of an Octaedron 252 

" " " of a Dodecaedron... . 252 

" " Superfices, etc., of any of the Five Regular Bodies 253 

" " Convex Superfices of a Cylindric Ring 253 

" Solidity of a Cylindric Ring 253 

Properties of the Circle. 253 

To Find the Size of a Tank to Hold a Certain Number of Gallons 254 

" Weight of a Safety Valve Ball, when Scales are not Handy 254 

" Largest Square that can be Cut from a Circular Sheet of 

Given Size 255 

" " Cubic Contents of a Tapering Vessel 255 

Metric System, of Lengths 255 

Measures, Comparative Table of French and United States 255 

Metals, Malleability of. 256 

" Specific Resistance of. 256 

" Conductivity and Non-Conductivity of. 257 

Weight of, per Square Foot 257 

" Cubic Inch, and Cubic Foot 257 

Muntz Metal 258 

Mills, Flour and Corn 258 

Miner's Inch 260 

Mortality, Table of. 261 

Materials, Strength of. . 262 

Metals, The Rarer 263 

" Order of Hardness of, etc 264 

Metal, Babbit 264 

" that Expands in Cooling 265 

Metals, Properties of 265 

Mile 266 

Mills, Saw 266 

Minerals, 266 

Magic Table 267 

Machinery, Horse Power Required for Driving 267 

Numbers, Useful, for Rapid Approximation 268 

" Square Roots and Cube Roots of— from 1 to 20 269 

" Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of— from 1 

to 1,000 270 

*' First Eight Powers of First Ten 277 

Nails, Length and Number of Cut, to One Pound 277 

" " " " " Wire, " " 278 

Nuts, Sizes and Weights of Hot Pressed Square 279 

" " " *' " " " Hexagon 280 

" Average Number of, in a Box or Keg of 200 Pounds 281 

" Machine Screw 281 

Stove Bolt 281 

Non-Conductors, Relative Value of. 2S2 

Ores, Earth, etc., Measures of. 282 

" Iron 282 

Oils, Lubricating 283 



14 TABLE O^ CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Pipe, Wrought Iron Steam, Gas, and Water 285 

" " " " Extra Strong 288 

" " " " " Doable Extra Strong 289 

Tarred or Asphalted Wrought Iron 290 

Lap-Welded Tuyere 290 

For Stay Bolt Tubes 290 

Thickness of Iron Required for Flush Joint 290 

Cast Iron Flanged 291 

Standard Flange ; 292 

Weights of Cast Iron 293 

Dimensions of Cast Iron * 294 

Weight of Cast Iron, including Bells 295 

Thickness of Metal Required for, under Heads of Water 296 

Table of Comparison of Safe Thickness of Cast Iron Water 297 

Capacity of Sewer 298 

Rule for Laying Draining 298 

Weights of Lead 299 

Table of Thickness of Lead 300 

Pure Block Tin 300 

Weight of Riveted Iron and Copper 301 

" Galvanized Iron 301 

Table Showing Square Feet of Surface on 302 

Diameter of Blast 303 

To Find the Weight of, per Running Foot 304 

To Find the Loss of Pressure in Air, bj' Reason of Friction 304 

Areas and Contents of. 305 

Friction-Loss in Pounds Pressure in 306 

Contents of, in CubicFeet and Gallons : 308 

Table of Flow of Steam Through 309 

" for Proportioning the Diameter of Air 310 

Loss of Heat from Steam 311 

To Find the Head due to Friction in a, Running Full 311 

Spiral Riveted Steam 312 

Bursting Pressures of Spiral Riveted Steam 313 

Table of Iron and Rivets Required for Spiral Riveted Steam 314 

Nominal Weight of Spiral Riveted Steam 314 

" Fittings for Spiral Riveted Steam 314 

Pumps, Boiler Feed 315 

Tank 316 

" Duplex Steam 317 

Centrifugal 318 

*• Steam Jet 318 

Single Acting 319 

Fire Streams 320 

" To Find the Horse Power of Boiler Necessary to Run a Steam 320 

Notes 321 

Plates, Table of Standard Tin 322 

" Weight of Iron, Copper and Brass 323 

Muntz Metal 324 

Piston Speeds, Table of. 324 

Pressure, Safe Working Steam 325 

" Mean Effective .... .;.. 326 

Planes, Inclined 326 

Pulleys, Dimensions for Standard 328 

Speed of. 329 

Data for Ordering 329 

Presses, Hydrostatic 329 

Paints, To Mix Different Colors 329 

Papers, Whatman's Drawing 330 

Rails Required for One Mile of Single Track, 2,000 lbs. to the ton 331 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 15 



Page. 

Rails Required for One Mile of Single Track, 2,240 lbs. to the ton 331 

Railroads, Logging 331 

Rails, Table of Middle Ordinates for Bending 332 

Rods, Weight of Round Copper and Brass ' 332 

Roofing, Cost of Tin 333 

Slate 334 

Reservoirs, Capacity of, in Gallons 335 

Roadways 337 

Rope, Manila , 337 

" Transmission and Standing Wire 338 

*' Hoisting Wire 339 

" Galvanized Iron Wire 340 

Steel Wire 340 

*' Transmission of Power by Wire 341 

Rivets, Iron 342 

Belt, and Burs 343 

" Shearing and Bearing Value of. 345 

Spikes, Wrought .. 345 

Springs. Weight of Elliptic 346 

Shingles 346 

Saws, Speed for Circular 347 

Shoes, Weights of Horse and Mule 347 

Shafting, Transmitting Efficiency of. 348 

Shaft, To Find the Power of a 349 

" " " " Speed of a 349 

" " " '• Diameterofa 349 

Shafting, Horse Power of Line . 349 

" Speed in Turning 349 

Steam, Properties of Saturated 351 

Used Expansively 352 

'' Velocity of Escaping 352 

Sines, Tangents, and Secants, Table of. 353 

Screw Threads 360 

Screws, Wood 361 

Screens, Needle Slot Battery 361 

Shafting, Patent Cold Rolled 362 

Sockets, Artesian Well 363 

Screw Ends, Upset 364 

Smoke-Stacks, Weight of. 366 

Steel Plate, Weight of 366 

Steel Bar, Weight of. 368 

Squares, Table ShowingSides of. 369 

Substances, Ignition Points of Various 369 

Weight of, to Cubic Foot 369 

Splice Joints per Mile of Track v 372 

Steel, Rule for Ascertaining the Weight of. 372 

" To Find Weight of, by Measurement 372 

Standard File, Sizes 373 

" Tempering 374 

Bath for Hardening 574 

" Directions for Scaling Sheet 374 

" Crucible Cast 374 

" Mushet 374 

Sound, Distances in Feet which. Travels in Air 375 

Screw Cutting 375 

Stone, Weight of, per Cubic Foot 375 

" Average Crushing Loads on, in Tons 375 

Tanks, Gallons Contained in Cisterns and 376 

Size of. 377 

Tacks 378 



16 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Type 378 

Tubing, Stone Well 378 

Timber, To Find Solidity of 378 

To Obtain the Volume of Tapering Stick of. 379 

" Table Showing Number of Feet in 380 

" Board Measure of, 381 

Tile, Average Weight of Drain 381 

" Carr5-ing Capacity of. 382 

Tubes, Weight of Brazed Copper , 382 

*' Sizes of Brazed Brass 383 

" Weight of Seamless Brass and Copper 383 

" Boiler 384 

" JLap Welded Charcoal Iron Boiler 386 

" " " " " Marine Boiler 388 

" * " Semi-Steel Locomotive *' 389 

Tubing, Well 390 

Taps. Machine Screw 390 

Speed of. 391 

Tires„ Shrinkage of 391 

Thermometric Scales 391 

Trains, Speed Table for 392 

Time, Table Showing Difference of, etc 392 

Unions, Cast Iron Flange 393 

Valve, Calculations for the Safety 393 

To Find the Proper Area of a Safety 395 

Safely, Area of, for One Square Foot of Grate 396 

" To Find the Area of Opening of a Conical Safet5' 396 

" Lap on a Slide 397 

" Amount of Lap Required on the Steam Side of a Slide 397 

Wire, Weight of One Foot in Length of Iron, Steel and Copper 398 

of Brass, B. & S. Gauge 400 

" •' per Mile of Copper 401 

" Hard Copper Telegraph 401 

" Iron Telegraph 402 

Galvanized Telegraph 402 

" Coiled, tor Making Needles 403 

" Sizes of American, Expressed in Fractions of an Inch 403 

•' Yards of, in one Bundle 403 

Tables, Kirkaldy's 404 

" Approximate Weight per 1,000 Feet of Copper Braided 405 

" Resistance of Pure Copper 406 

Washers, Average Number of, in a Box or Keg of 150 lbs 407 

StandardList of Wrought 407 

Wind, Velocity and Force of the 408 

Water 408 

At Different Temperatures 408 

Boiling Point of. 408 

•' Pressure of 409 

To Find the Horse Power of. Flowing in Streams 410 

Walls, Strength of Brick 410 

Wood, Relative Hardness of. 410 

Wheels, Driving 410 

Buffalo Exhaust Disc 411 

" Capacities of Large Fan 412 

" Sizes and Weights of Cast Iron Tramway 413 

Wages, Tables 414 

Wheels, Emery , 420 

Zinc, Approximate Weight of Sheet 422 

Zinc Drawn Round Rods. Weight of. 423 

Zinc Tubing, Weight of Brazed ^.. 423 



VADK MKCUM. 



-•->^^- 



COMMON FRACTIONS. 



Rule for Addition. 

When necessary, reduce the fractionstotheirleast common denominator, 
Then: 

Add the numerators, and place the sum over the common denominator. 

Rule for Subtraction. 

When necessary, reduce the fraction to a common denominator. Then: 
Subtract the numerator of the subtrahend from the numerator of the 
minuend, and place the difference over the common denominator. 

Rule for Multiplication. 

Multiply together the numerators for a new numerator, and the denom- 
inators for a new denominator. 

Rule for Division. 

Invert the divisor, and proceed as in multiplication. 

Decimal Fractions. 

To reduce a decimal to a common fraction. 

Rule: Omit the decimal point, and supply the proper denominator. 

Thus. Reduce .125 to a common fraction. 

\ 125 / 
^25)^^1/8 Ans. 

1000 

To reduce a common fraction to a decimal. 

Rule: Annex ciphers to the numerator, and divide by the denominator. 

Then: 

Point off as many decimal places in the result as are equfil to the 

number of ciphers annexed. 

Thus: Reduce % to a decimal. 

8 |5000 

.625 Ans. 

2 



18 ARITHMETIC. 



Rule for Addition. 

Write the numbers so that the decimal points shall stand directly under 
each other. Add as in whole numbers, and place the decimal point in the 
result directly under the points in the numbers added. 

Rule for Subtraction. 

Write the numbers so that the decimal points shall stand directly under 
each other. Subtract as in whole numbers, and place the decimal point in 
the result directly under the points in the given numbers. 

Rule for Multiplication. 

Multiply as in whole numbers, and from the right hand of the product 
point off as many figures for decimals as there are decimal places in both 
factors. 

Rule for Division. 

Divide as in whole numbers, and from the right hand of the quotient 
point off as many places for decimals as the decimal places in the dividend 
exceed those in the divisor. 

Note. The dividend must always contain at least as man^- decimal 
places as the divisor, before commencing the division. 

If the quotient does not contain a sufficient number of decimal places, 
prefix ciphers to same. 

To reduce a pure circulate to a common fraction. 

Rule. Write the repetend for the numerator, omitting the decimal point 
and the dots, and for the denominator write as many 9s (nines) as there 
are figures in the repetend, and reduce the fraction to its lowest terms. 

Note. A pure circulate has no figures but the repetend. As .5 and .124. 
Example. 

Change .53 to a common fraction. 
Operation. 

100 times the repetend = 53.53 
Once " " = .53 

99 " " " = 53.00 

Once " " = 53 

"99 Ans. 
Example. 

Change .456 to a common fraction. 

1000 times the repetend = 456.456 



Once " 


456 


999 times " 


=456 


Once " 


456 




999 Ans. 



ARITHMETIC. 



19 



To reduce a mixed circulate to a common fraction. 

Rule: First. For the numerator. 

Subtract the part which precedes the repetend from the whole expres- 
sion, both quantities being considered units. 

Secondly. For the denominator. 

Write as many 9s (nines) as there are figures in the repetend, and annex 
as many ciphers as there are decimal figures before each repetend. 

Note. A mixed circulate has other figures before the repetend; as, 
.2083 and .31247. 



Example. 

Change 821437 to a common fraction. 

821437 — 821 _ 102577 



999000 



124875 



Ans. 



Example. 

Change. 048 to a common fraction. 

48 — 4 ^ 44 
900 900 



-= ilAns 
225 



TABI/E OF BINARY AND Dl^Cim.Al, FRACTIONS. 



eS = .015625 


il = .265625 


II = .515625 


n = 


.765625 


gL = .03125 


3% = .28125 


ii = .53125 


*i = 


.78125 


ii = .046875 


if = .296875 


If = .546875 


M = 


.796875 


f^6 = .0625 


i%=.3125 


1% = .5625 


H = 


.8125 


#5 = .078125 


U = .328125 


|7 = .578125 


11 = 


.828125 


i^ = .09375 


H = .34375 


if = .59375 


II = 


.84375 


i^ = .109375 


§1 = .359375 


If = .609375 


If = 


.859375 


i = .125 


1 = .375 


i = .625 


1 = 


.875 


^4 = .140625 


gf = .390625 


ii = .640625 


il = 


.890625 


^2 = .15625 


H ^ .40625 


§i = .65625 




.90625 


H = .171875 


II = .421875 


If = .671875 


n = 


.921875 


,^e=.1875 


/e = .4375 


i|-=.6875 


H = 


.9375 


H = . 203 125 


§1 = .453125 


l-l = .703125 


u = 


.953125 


^\ = .21875 


fl = .46875 


§1= .71875 


u = 


.96875 


II = .234375 


|i = .484375 


|x = .743375 


fi = 


.984375 


| = .25 


i = .5 


| = .75 


1 = 


1.000000 



20 



ARITHMETIC. 



ROMAN CARDINAIy NUMBD^RS. 



I 


1 


XXII 


22 


II 


2 


XXX 


30 


Ill 


3 


XL 


40 


IV 


4 


L 


50 


V 

VI 


5 

6 


LX 

LXX 


60 

70 


VII 


7 


LXXX 


80 


VIII 


8 


XC 


90 


IX 


9 


C 


100 


X 

XI 


10 

11 


CC 

CCC 


200 

300 


XII 


12 


CCCC 


400 


XIII 


13 


D 


500 


XIV 


14 


DC 


600 


XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 


15 

16 

17 

18 


MM 

V 

X 

L 

C 


1,000 

2,000 

5,000 


XIX 

XX 

XXI 


19 

20 

21 


10,000 

50,000 

100,000 



The Romans contrived to express all numbers by these seven letters — 
I, one; V, 5; X, 10; L, 50; C 100- D 500; M 1,000. 

The repetition of a letter repeats its value; thus II signifies 2; XXX 30 
etc.; V and L are never repeated. 

When a letter of less value is placed before another of greater value, the 
value of the less is taken from the greater. When placed after it, the value 
of the less is added to the greater. 





TABI 


vB OF 


prim:^ numb:^rs from i to 


IjOOO. 




1 


59 


139 


233 


337 


439 


557 


653 


769 


883 


2 


61 


149 


239 


347 


443 


563 


659 


773 


887 


3 


67 


151 


241 


349 


449 


569 


661 


787 


907 


5 


71 


157 


251 


353 


457 


571 


673 


797 


911 


7 


73 


163 


257 


359 


461 


577 


677 


809 


919 


11 


79 


167 


263 


367 


463 


587 


683 


811 


929 


13 


83 


173 


269 


373 


467 


593 


691 


821 


937 


17 


89 


179 


271 


379 


479 


599 


701 


823 


941 


IV 


97 


181 


277 


383 


487 


601 


709 


827 


947 


23 


101 


191 


281 


389 


491 


607 


719 


829 


953 


29 


103 


193 


283 


397 


499 


613 


727 


839 


967 


31 


107 


197 


293 


401 


503 


617 


733 


853 


971 


37 


109 


199 


307 


409 


509 


619 


T39 


857 


977 


41 


113 


211 


311 


419 


521 


631 


743 


859 


983 


43 


127 


223 


313 


421 


523 


641 


751 


863 


991 


47 


131 


227 


317 


431 


541 


643 


757 


S77 


997 


53 


137 


229 


331 


433 


547 


647 


761 


881 





ARITHMETIC. 



21 



A Prime Number is one that can not be resolved or separated into two 
or more integral factors. 

A Prime Number can be divided only by itself and unity. 



UNITED STATES 

Table. 

10 tnills (m ) niake 1 cent 


MON:eY. 

.ct. 


10000 m 


10 cents " 1 dime 

10 dimes " 1 dollar 

10 dollars ' 1 eagle 


1000 ct. 

100 d. 

10 $ 



Equivalents. 

E. $ D. CT. M. 

1 = 10 = 100 =r 1000 = 10000 

1 = 10 = 100 = 1000 

1 = 10 =3 100 

1 = 10 



ENGI^ISH MONE^Y. 



4 farthings (far.) make 
12 pence " 

20 shillings 



Table. 

U. S. VALUE. 

1 penny d $0.0202 + 

1 shilling s 2433 -f 

1 pound, or sov...£ $4.8665 

Equivalents. 



Note. 



£ S. D. FAR. 

1 = 20 = 240 =r 660 

1 = 12 = 48 

1 = 4 

Also. 

1 crown = 5 shilHngs. 
1 half crown = 2 shillings and 6 pence. 
1 guinea = 21 shillings. 
1 Canadian sovereign = $4.86|. 
A French franc is equal to $.193 U. S. money. 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

Table. 

16 drams (dr.) make 1 ounce oz. 

16 ounces " 1 pound lb. 

25 pounds " 1 quarter qr. 

4 quarters " 1 hundred weight ...cwt. 

20 hundred weight,! i +or, t 

or 2,0QQ lbs, / ^ ^^" "•••-'^ ' 



22 ARITHMETIC. 



Equivalent. 

T. CWT. QR. LB. OZ. DR. 

1 = 20 = 80 = 2000 = 32000 = 512000 

1 = 4 = 100 = 1600 = 25600 

1-= 25 = 400 = 6400 

1 = 16 = 256 

1 = 16 

I/ong Ton Table. 

16 ounces make 1 pound lb. 

28 pounds " 1 quarter qr. 

4 quarters , " 1 hundred weight cwt. 

20 cwt. = 2240 lb. " 1 ton T. 



TROY W:eiGHT. 

Table. 



24 grains (gr.) make 1 pennyweight pwt. 

20 pennyweights " 1 ounce oz. 

12 ounces " 1 pound lb. 

31 grains " 1 carat K. 

iEquivalents. 

LB. OZ. PWT. GR. 

1 = 12 = 240 = 5760 
1 = 20 = 480 
1 = 24 
Note. A jeweler's carat is equal, in the U. S., to 3.2 grains; in London, 
to 3.17 grains; in Paris, to 3.18 grains. 



APOTHECARIKS' W:eiGHT. 

Table. 

20 grains (gr. ) make 1 sruplc 9 

3 sruples " 1 dram 3 

8 drams " 1 ounce... ...,^ 

12 ounces " 1 pound lb. 

^Equivalents. 

LB. § 5 9 GR. 

1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760 

1 = 8 = 24 = 480 

1 = 3 = 60 

1 = 20 

Note: In Troy and Apothecaries' weights, the grain, ounce and pound 

are the same. 



ARITHMETIC. 23 



iviNEAR, OR ivONG m:e^asur:e^. 

Table. 

12 inches (in.) make 1 foot ft. 

3 feet " 1 yard yd. 

514 yards " 1 rod rd. 

40 rods " 1 furlong fur. 

8 furlongs " 1 statute mile mi 

Equivalents. 



MI. FUR. RODS. 


YDS. 


FT. IN. 


1 = 8 = 320 = 


1760 


= 5280 = 63360 


1 = 40 = 


220 


= 660 = 7920 


1 = 


51/2 


= I6V2 = 198 




1 


= 3 - 36 

1 = 12 




Also. 




9 inches 


make 1 span. 


4 " 


' 


' 1 hand. 


6 feet 


' 


1 fathom. 


120 fathoms 




1 cable length. 


7V2 cable length: 


3 


' 1 mile. 


1.15 statute miles 


' 


' 1 geographic mile. 


3 geographic miles " 


' 1 league. 


60 

69i statute 


it II 


[ 1 degree. 


360 degrees 


' 


' the circumference of the earth. 


5280 feet 


" 


' 1 statute mile. 


6072 " 


n 


1 geographic mile. 
1 nautical knot. 


6082.66 feet 


a 



The length of a degree of latitude varies, being 68.72 miles at the equa- 
tor, 68.9 to 69.05 miles in middle latitudes, and 69.30 to 69.34 miles in the 
polar regions. A degree of longitude is greatest at the equator, where it is 
69.16 miles, and it gradually decreases toward the poles, where it is 0. 



suRv:eYORS' m:easurb. 

Table of I^inear Distances. 

7.92 inches (in.) make 1 link 1. 

25 links " 1 rod rd. 

4 rods, or 66 feet " 1 chain ch. 

80 chains " 1 mile mi. 

i^quivalents. 

MI. CH. RD. L. IN. 

1 = 80 = 320 = 8000 = 63360 

1 = 4 = 100 = 792 

1 = 25 = 198 

1 = 7.92 

Gunter's chain is 4 rods in length, and consists of 100 links. 



24 



ARITHMETIC. 



Table of Areas. 

625 square links (sq. 1) make 1 pole p. 



16 poles 
100 square feet 
1 chain wide 
1 square acre 
A square % 

A " 1/4 

A circular 

A " V2 

A " 1/4 



" 1 square chain sq. ch. 

= 1 square. 

= 8 acres per mile. 

= 208.71 feet at each side. 

= 147.58 

= 104.355 

= 235.504 feet in diameter. 

= 166.527 " 

= 117.752 " 

10 square chains make 1 acre A. 

640 acres " 1 square mile sq. mi. 

36 square miles " 1 township Tp. 

l^qivalents. 

TP. SQ. Ml. A. SQ. CH. P. SQ. L. 

1 = 36 = 23040 = 230400 = 3686400 = 2304000000 
1 = 640 = 6400 = 102400 = 64000000 
1 = 10 = 160 = 10000 

1 = 16 = 1000 

1 = 625 

A section equals 1 square mile, or 640 acres. 
A township is 6 miles square, and contains 36 sections. 
A vara is equal to 2.75 lineal feet. 

"50 vara lot" equals 50 varas square, or 18,906.25 sqr. ft., or 434 
acres. 

"100 vara lot" equals 100 varas square, or 5,625 sqr. ft., or 1,736 
acres. 

1 Legua land (Mexican) equals 678.17 square miles, or 4,340 j^g acres. 
The French Foot equals 12.8 inches, nearly. 
The French Arpent contains nearly % of an acre. 



TIMB M:eASURE. 

Table. 

60 seconds (sec.) make 1 minute m. 

60 minutes " 1 hour hr. 

24 hours " 1 day da. 

7 days " 1 week wk. 

36514 days " 1 year yr. 

100 years " 1 century C. 

l^quivalents. 

YR. WK. DA. HR. MIN. SEC. 

1 = 52 = 36514 = 8766 = 525960 = 31557600 

1 = 7 = 168 = 10080 = 604800 

1 = 24= 1440= 86400 

1 = 60 = 3600 

1=: 60 



ARITHMETIC. 25 



A Sidereal Day equals 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.092 seconds, in solar or 
mean time. 

A Solar Day (mean) equals 24 hours, 3 minutes, 56.555 seconds, in 
sidereal time. 

A sidereal year, or revolution of the earth, equals 365.25635 solar days. 

A Solar, or Calendar Year, equals 365.24224 solar days. 



squar:e measure. 



Table. 



144 square inches (sq. in.) make 1 square foot sq. ft. 

9 square feet " 1 square yard sq. yd. 

30^/4 square yards " 1 square rod sq. rd. 

40 square rods " 1 rood R. 

4 roods " 1 acre A. 

640 acres " 1 square mile sq. mi. 

:Equivalents. 

so. MI. A. R. SQ. RD. SQ. YDS. SQ.FT. SQ. IN. 

1 = 640 == 2560 = 102400 = 3097600 =27878400 =4014489600 

1 = 4 = 160 = 4840 = 43560 = 6272640 

1= 40= 1210 = 10890 = 1568160 

1 = 3014 = 272% = 39204 

1 = 9 = 1296 

1 = 144 

Joiners, brickla\^ers and masons make no allowance for windows, doors, 

or other openings. 

Bricklayers and masons, in estimating their work by cubic measure, 
make no allowance for the corners of the walls of houses, cellars, etc., but 
estimate their work b}^ the girt, that is, the entire length of the wall on the 
outside. 

Plasterers estimate their work by the square yard, and make no allow- 
ance for doors and windows; charging double for plastering around gothic, 
circular and irregular shaped openings. 

In some localities, but one-half is charged for plastering around doors 
and rectangular shaped windows. 



DRY Mi^ASURlS. 



Table. 



2 pints (pt.) make 1 quart qt. 

8 quarts " 1 peck pk. 

4 pecks " 1 bushel bu. 

3g,.„.v,^.. .. 1 chaldron gh. 



26 ARITHMETIC. 



Equivalents. 

CH. BU. PK. QT. PT. 

1 = 36 = 144 = 1152 = 2304 

1 = 4 = 32 = 64 
1= 8= 16 
1= 2 
The U. S. standard unit of dry measure is the British Winchester bushel, 
which is I8V2 inches in diameter and 8 inches deep, and contains 2150.42 
cubic inches, equal to 77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of distilled water, at its 
maximum density. 

A gallon, dry measure, contains 268.8 cubic inches. 

CUBIC INCHES. CUBIC INCHES. CUBIC INCHES. CUBIC INCHES. 
IN ONE GALLON. IN ONE QUART. IN ONE PINT. IN ONE GILL. 

Wine measure 231 573/4 28% 7/, 

Dry measure 268| 671 33| 8f 

Beer, gallon 282 

A bushel is commonh- estimated at 2150.4 cubic inches, and when 
heaped the cone must be 6 inches high, making a heaped bushel equal to 1^/4 
struck ones. 



CUBIC MEASURE. 

Table. 



1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) make 1 cubic foot cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet " 1 cubic yard cu. yd. 

16 cubic feet " 1 cord foot cd. ft. 

128X4\*t'"'} " 1 cord of wood cd. 

24| cubic feet " 1 perch Pch. 

A pile of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, contains 1 cord; 
and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of such a pile. 

A perch of stone, or of masonry, is I6V2 feet long, I14 feet wide, and 1 
foot high. 

In some localities a perch of stone equals 22 cubic feet. In others 18 
cubic feet. 



IvIQUID MEASURE. 

Table. 



4 gills (gi.) make 1 pint pt. 

2 pints " 1 quart qt. 

4 quarts " 1 gallon gal. 

3IV2 gallons " 1 barrel bbl. 

2 barrels " 1 hogshead hhd. 





ARITHMETIC. 


27 




Equivalents. 




HHD. BBL. 


GAL. QTS. PTS. GI. 




1 = 2 = 


63 = 252 = 504 = 2016 




1 = 


3IV2 = 126 = 252 = 1008 

1 = 4 = 8 = 32 

1 = 2 = 8 

1 = 4 

Also. 




36 gallons 


make 1 barrel of ale, beer, or milk. 




54 


" 1 hogshead " " 




42 


" 1 tierce. 




2 hogsheads 


" 1 pipe, or butt. 




2 pipes 


1 tun. 




CI/OTH MJ^ASURB. 





21/4 inches make 1 nail na. 

4 nails " 1 quarter qr. 

4 quarters" 1 yard yd. 



CIRCUIyAR MEASURE. 

Table. 

60 seconds {^^) make 1 minute '' 

60 minutes " 1 degree ° 

30 degrees " 1 sign S. 

12 signs, or 360 degrees " 1 ciixle C. 

iEquivalents. 

C. S. ° ' '' 

1 = 12 = 360 = 21600 = 1296000 

1 = 30 = 1800 = 108000 

1= 60 = 3600 

1 = 60 

Also. 
90 degrees make 1 quadrant. 
4 quadrants, or 360 degrees, make 1 circle. 



MISC:iSI,I/ANBOUS TABI^BS. 



12 units make 1 dozen. 

12 dozen " 1 gross. 

12 gross " 1 great gross. 

20 things " 1 score. 

100 pounds " 1 quintal of fish. 



28 ARITHMETIC. 



196 pounds " 1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds " 1 barrel of pork. 

18 inches " 1 cubit. 

22 inches (nearly) " 1 sacred cubit. 

14 pounds " 1 stone. 

21 V2 stones " 1 pig- 

8 pigs " 1 fother. 

100 pounds of grain or flour " 1 cental. 

100 " dry fish *' 1 quintal. 

100 " nails " 1 keg. 

280 " salt at N. Y. S. works " 1 barrel. 

56 " " " " " 1 bushel. 

240 " lime " 1 cask. 

32 " oats " 1 bushel. 

56 " corn, shelled " 1 bushel. 

60 " wheat " 1 bushel. 

A cubic inch of distilled water in a vacuum, weighed by brass weigh «, 
also in a vacuum, at a temperature of 62 degrees Fah., is equal to 252.4-58 
grains, of which the standard Troy pound contains 5760. A pound avoir- 
dupois contains 7000 Troy grains. An ounce Troy is 42.5 grains greater 
than an ounce avoirdupois. 

Sizes of Flat Paper. 

Flat Letter 10x16 

Flat Foolscap.. 13 x 16 

Packet Post.....' 12 x 19 

Cap 14x17 

Crown 15x19 

Double Flat Letter 16 x 20 

Demy 16x21 

Folio Post ,..c 17 X 22 

Check Folio 17 x 24 

Medium..... 18x23 

Double Flat Foolscap 16 x 26 

Bank Folio 19 x 24 

Royal 19x24 

Double Cap 17x28 

Super Royal 20 x 28 

Double Demy 21x32 

Double Demy : 16x42 

Imperial 23 x 31 

Double Medium 23 x 36 

Double Medium 18x46 

Elephant 23x28 

Colombier 23x34 

Atlas 26x33 

Double Royal 24x38 

Double Elephant 27 x 40 

Antiquarian ,...,,,,,..» »».». 3X ^ 53 



ARITHMETIC. 29 



A sheet folded in 2 leaves is called a folio. 

" " 4 " " a quarto, or 4to. 

" " 8 " " an octavo, or 8yo. 

/• " 12 " " al2mo. 

*' " 18 " " an 18mo. 

" " 24 " " a 24mo. 

32 " " a32mo. ^ 

24 sheets make 1 quire. 
20 quires " 1 ream. 

2 reams " 1 bundle. 

5 bundles " 1 bale. 

Billion. 

A billion, according to the French and American system of notation, is 
one thousand millions. 

Thus, 1,000,000,000. 
According to the English system, a billion is one million millions. 

Thus, 1,000,000,000,000. 
In the English method the period contains six orders, the name of the 
first period being Units, the second Millions, and the third Billions. 

Properties of Numbers. 

The number 142,857 multiplied by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 gives the same 
figures in the same order, beginning at a different point, and if multiplied by 
7 gives all nines. 



142,857 X 


1 = 


142,857 


142,857 X 


2 = 


285,714 


142,857 X 


3 = 


428,571 


142,857 X 


4 = 


571,428 


142,857 X 


5 = 


714,285 


142,857 X 


6 = 


857,142 


142,857 X 


7 = 


999,999 


142,857 X 


8 = 


1,142,856 

1 



142,857 



por:eign w:eiGHTS and m:^asur^s. 



DENOMINATION. WHERE USED. U. S. EQUIVALENT. 

Almude.... Portugal 4.442 gals. 

Ardeb Alexandria 7.5907 bus. 

Aratel or libra Portugal 1.011 lbs. av. 

Aroba Portugal 32.38 lbs. 

" Brazil 

" Spain 25. 36 lbs. 

" Buenos Ayres " 

" Spain (wine) 4.26 gals. 

Artal Morocco 1.12 lbs. av. 



30 ARITHMETIC. 



Baril Argentine Rep 20.0787 gals. 

" Mexico " 

Candy Bombay 560 lbs. av. 

Madras 500 lbs. av. 

Cantar Turkey 124.7036 lbs. av. 

Catty China 1.333 lbs. av. 

" .Japan 1.31 lbs. 

" .Java & Siam 1.35 lbs. 

" Malacca " 

" Sumatra 2.12 lbs. 

Centner Bremen 127.5 lbs. 

" Brunswick 117.5 lbs. 

" Darmstadt 110.24 lbs. 

" Zollverein " 

" Denmark 110.11 lbs 

** Norway " 

" Nuremberg 112.43 lbs. 

" Prussia 113.44 lbs. 

" Vienna 123.5 lbs. 

Fanega Mexico 1.54728 bus. 

*' Peru 140 Castilian lbs. 

Gramme Metric 15,432 grs. av. 

Hectoliter " 26.417 quarts. 

Kilogram or kilo " 2.2046 lbs. av. 

Kilometer " 0.621376 miles. 

Last Belgium (dry) 85.134 bus. 

" Holland (dry) 

" Eng. (dry malt) 82.52 bus. 

" Prussia 112.29 bus. 

Libra Castilian 7100 grains troy. 

" Chili 1.014 lbs. av. 

Liter Metric 1.026 quarts. 

Livre Guiana 1.0791 lbs. av. 

Maund Bengal 82.285 lbs. av. 

" Bombay 28 lbs. av. 

" Madras 25 lbs. av. 

Meter Metric 39.37 inches. 

" Metric (cubic) 1.308 cubic yds. 

" Metric (sq.) 1550.0 sq. inches. 

Oka Egypt 2.7235 lbs. av. 

•' Hungary 3.0817 lbs. av. 

• , ..Turkey 2.83418 lbs. av. 

Picul Borneo 135.64 lbs. 

" Celebes 

" China 1331/3 lbs. 

" Sumatra " 

" .Japan 130 lbs. 

" .Java (Batavia) 135.10 lbs. 

" Hemp of Manila Philip. Isl 139.45 lbs. 



ARITHMETIC. 31 



" Sugar of Manila, Phil. Isl 140 lbs. 

Pie Argentine Republic 0.9478 feet. 

'« Castilian 0.91407 feet. 

Pik Turkey 27.9 inches. 

Quarter England 8.252 bus. 

Quintal Brazil 130.06 lbs. av. 

" Buenos Ayres 101.42 lbs. av„ 

Castile, ChiH 101.61 lbs. av. 

" Mexico, Peru " 

" Metric 220.47 lbs. 

Tael Cochin-China 590.75 grainstroy. 

Tonde (ton) Denmark 3.94783 bus. 

Vara Castihan 0.914117 yard. 

" Curacoa 33.375 inches. 

" Peru and Cuba " 



DUODieCIMAI^S. 



Table. 

12 fourths, marked {^^'') make 1 third marked V^ 

12 thirds " 1 second " V 

12 seconds " 1 prime, or inch " V 

12 primes, or inches " 1 foot " ft. 

Rule for Multiplication. 

Write the several terms of the multiplier under the corresponding terms 
of the multiplicand. 

Multiply each term of the multiplicand by each term of the multiplier, 
beginning with the lowest term in each, and call the product of any two 
denominations the denomination denoted by the sum of their indices, car- 
rying 1 for every 12. 

Add the partial products, carrying 1 for every 12 ; their sum will be the 
required answ^er. 

Example. How many square feet in a board 11 feet 8 inches long, and 
2 feet 7 inches wide? 

11 ft. 8^ 8^ X 7^=^56^^ 

2 1' 56^^ 

6 ft. 9' %'^ T2~ = ^' ^^^ 

2 3 4^ W' remainder. 

30 ft. V 8^^ Ans. H ft. X 7^ = 77^ 

Or, 30 ft. 1 A inches. '^^' + 4^ = 81^ 

%V 

T2 ^ ^ • ^"^ 
9'' remainder. 
8^ X 2 ft. = 16' 

-Jo = 1 ft and 

4' remainder, 
lift. X 2 ft. = 22 ft. 
22ft.+ lft. = 23ft. 



32 ARITHMETIC. 



P^RC:eNTAGE. 



160 


= 


loo 


100 


= 


5^0 


100 


= 


A 


100 


= 


2^0 


ioo 


= 


5^0 


100 


= 


100 


foo 


= 


2% 


/o% 


= 


1*0 


i% 


= 


2^5 


I'cfo 


== 


h 


m 


= 


i 


l^^O 


= 


h 


^88 


= 


1 


m 


= 


5 

4 


1000 


= 


200 


lo'o^o 


= 


40O 


i^oVo 


= 


1 

8 


fWo% 


= 


u 



Table. 

1 per cent = .01 = 

2 " = .02 = 

4 " =: . .04 = 

5 " = .05 = 

6 " = .06 = 

7 " = .07 = 

8 " = .08 = 
10 " = .10 = 
16 " = .16 = 
20 " = .20 = 
25 " = .25 = 
50 " = .50 = 

100 " = 1.00 = 

125 " = 1.25 = 

1/2 " = .005 = 

% *' = .0075 = 

121/2 " = .125 = 

161/4 " = .1625 = 

To Find the Percentage of Any Number. 
Rule. Multiply the given number or quantity by the rate per cent, ex- 
pressed decimally, and point off as in decimals. 

To Find What Per Cent. One Number is of Another. 
Rule. Divide the percentage by the base, and the quotient will be the 
rate per cent, expressed decimally. 

To Find a Number When a Certain Per Cent, of It Is Given. 

Rule. Divide the percentage by the rate per cent, expressed decimally, 
and the quotient will be the base, or number required. 

To Find a Number When the Number, Increased by a Certain 
Per Cent, of Itself, Is Given. 

Rule. Divide the amount by 1 plus the rate expressed decimally, and 
the quotient will be the base, or number required. 

To Find a Number When the Number, Diminished by a Cer- 
tain Per Cent, of Itself, Is Given. 
Rule. Divide the given number by 1 minus the rate expressed decimally, 
and the quotient will be the base, or number required. 

Simple Interest. 

General Rule. Find the interest for one year by multiplj'ing the 
principal by as many hundredths as are expressed in the rate per cent., then 
multiply by the number of years and fractional parts of years expressed in 
the given time. 

Note. When the time is expressed in months and days, it is usual for 
convenience to regard each month as f 2, and each day as 3I0 of the year. 



ARITHMETIC. 



33 



Example. What is the simple interest of $844.50 for 2 years, 3 months, 
6 days, at 7 per cent? 

$844.50 

^7 

1 year = 59.1150 
2 



= 118.230 
3 mos.= 14 14.778 



6da.= -A 



.985 



$133.99 Answer. 
Or, 844.50 

^7 

59.1150 = interest for 1 year. 

2 

118.2300= " "2 " 



3 months = ^A of 1 year. 



59.1150 



= 14.77875 



6 days = ^q of 1 year. 
59.1150 



60 



= .98525 



Then $118.2300 
14.77875 
.98525 
$133.99400 Answer. 

To Find the Interest on Any Sum of Money at a Given Rate 

for One Year. 

Rule. Multiply the sum by the rate and divide by 100. 

To Find the Interest on Any Sum of Money at a Given Rate 
for Any Given Number of Days. 

Rule. Multiply the interest for one year by the number of days and 
divide the product by 365. 



Compound Interest. 

One dollar loaned one hundred years, with interest compounded each 
year would produce the following results: 

1 percent would amount to 2.75 

3 " " " 19.25 

6 " " '' 340.00 

10 " " " 13,809.00 

12 " " " 84,675.00 

15 " " " 1,174,405.00 

18 " " " 15,145,207.00 

24 '♦ '* ** 2,551,799,404.00 



34 



ARITHMETIC. 



Compound Interest Table. 

Showing the amount of $1, at 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 per cent, compound in- 
terest, for any number of years, from 1 to 20 : 



YRS. 


3 PER CENT. 


4 PER CENT. 


5 PER CENT. 


6 PER CENT. 


7 PER CENT. 


1 


1.030000 


1.040000 


1.050000 


1.060000 


1.07000 


2 


1.060900 


1.081600 


1.102500 


1.123600 


1.14490 


3 


1.092727 


1.124864 


1.157625 


1.191016 


1.22504 


4 


1.125509 


1.169859 


1.215506 


1.262477 


1.31079 


5 


1.159274 


1.216653 


1.276282 


1.338226 


1.40255 


6 


1.194052 


1.265319 


1.340096 


1.418519 


1.50073 


7 


1.229874 


1.315932 


1.407100 


1.503630 


1.60578 


8 


1.266770 


1.368569 


1.477455 


1.593848 


1.71818 


9 


1.304773 


1.423312 


1.551328 


1.689479 


1.83845 


10 


1.343916 


1.480244 


1.628895 


1.790848 


1.96715 


11 


1.384234 


1.539454 


1.710339 


1.898299 


2.10485 


12 


1.425761 


1.601032 


1.795S56 


2.012196 


2.25219 


13 


1.468534 


1.665074 


1.885649 


2.132928 


2.40984 


14 


1.512590 


1.731676 


1.979932 


2.260904 


2.57853 


15 


1.557967 


1.800944 


2.078928 


2.396558 


2.75903 


16 


1.604706 


1.872981 


2.182875 


2.540352 


2.95216 


17 


1.652848 


1.947900 


2.292018 


2.692773 


3.15881 


18 


1.702433 


2.025817 


2.406619 


2.854339 


3.37293 


19 


1.753506 


2.106849 


2.526950 


3.025600 


3.61652 


20 


1.806111 


2.191123 


2.653298 


3.207135 


3.86968 



To find the amount of any sum greater than $1, multiply the sum by 
the tabular multiplier, and the product will be the amount for the given 
time and rate per cent. 



Time in which Money Doubles at Interest. 



PER CENT. 



SIMPLE INTEREST. 



COMPOUND INTEREST. 



2V2. 

3 . 
3V2. 

4 . 

4y2. 

5 . 

6 . 

7 % 



9 
10 



.50 years 35 years and 1 day. 



.40 
.33 
.28 
.25 
.22 
.20 
.16 
.14 



8 121/2' 



.11 
.10 



28 

and 4 months 23 

and 208 days 20 

" 17 

and 81 days 15 

' 15 

and 8 months 11 

and 104 da\^s 10 

' 9 

and 40 days 8 

:.... 7 



26 
164 

54 
246 
273 

75 
327 

89 
2 

16 
100 



ARITHMETIC. 



35 



TAXES. 



The following table is based upon an assessment of 5 mills to the dol- 
lar, or V2 per cent, 



$1 gives. 
2 
3 
4. 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 



TAX. 


PROP. 


TAX. 


PROP. 


TAX. 


PROP. 


$.005 


$10 


$.05 


$100 


$ .50 


$1000 


.01 


20 


.10 


200 


1.00 


2000 


.015 


30 


.15 


300 


1.50 


3000 


.02 


40 


.20 


400 


2.00 


4000 


.025 


50 


.25 


500 


2.50 


5000 


.03 


60 


.30 


600 


3.00 


6000 


.035 


70 


.35 


700 


3.50 


7000 


.04 


80 


.40 


800 


4.00 


8000 


.045 


90 


.45 


900 


4.50 


9000! 



TAX. 

$ 5.00 
10. 
15. 
20. 
25. 
30, 
35. 
40. 
45. 



For any assessment greater, or less than five mills, add to or subtract 
from amounts given in " Tax " columns. 



SQUARE ROOT. 



To extract the square root of any number. 

Rule.— 1. Separate the given number into periods of two places each, 
by placing a dot over the alternate figures, beginning with units. (The left 
period will often have but one figure.) 

2. F'ind the greatest square in the left period, and place its root on the 
right, like a quotient in division. Subtract the square of this root from the 
left period, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a dividend. 

3. Double the root found, and place it on the left for a trial divisor. 
Find how many times the divisor is contained in the dividend, exclusive of 
the right hand figure, and place the quotient in the root and also on the 
right of the divisor. 

4. Multiply the divisor thus increased by the last figure of the root; 
subtract the product from the dividend; to the remainder annex the next 
period for a new dividend. 

5. Double the whole root found for a new trial divisor, and continue 
the operation as before, until all the periods are used. 

Example : What is the square root of 2025 ? 
2025(45 Ans. 
16 
85)425 
425 
Example : What is the square root of 110889 ? 
110889 (333 Ans. 

9 

63)208 
189 
663)1989 
1989 



36 ARITHMETIC. 



Example : What is the square root of 20857489 ? 
20857489( 4567 Ans . 
16 
85) 485 
425 
906) 6074 
5436 
9127) 63889 
63889 

Example : What is the square root of 406457.2516 
406457.2516(637.54 Ans. 
36 
123) 464 
369 
1267) 9557 
8869 
12745) 68825 
63725 
127504) 510016 
510016 

Example : What is the square root of 2 ? 

2.o6o6o6o6( 1.4142-}-Aiis. 
1 
24) 100 
96 



281) 400 
281 



2824) 11900 

11296_ 

28282) 60400 

56564 

3836 

Example : What is the square root of f ? 

I = .6666666666(.8 1649 + Ans. 
64 
161) 266 
161 
1626) 10566 
9756 



16324) 81066 
65296 



163289) 1577066 
1469601 
~~107465 



ARITHMETIC. 37 



ExMAPLE : What is the square root of y^^g ? 

The square root of 25 = 5 

" 729 (="27 '^^®- 
4 
47; 329 
329 

The square root of a common fraction may be obtained by extracting 
the square roots of the numerator and denominator separately, provided 
the terms are perfect squares; otherwise, the fraction may be reduced to a 
decimal. 



CUBE ROOT. 



To Extract the Cube Root of Any Number. 

Rule. — 1. Separate the given number into periods of 3 places each, by 
placing a dot over the units, a dot over the thousands, and so on. (The 
left period often has only one or two figures.) 

2. Find the greatest cube in the left period , and place its root on the right, 
as in division. Subtract the cube of the root from the left period, and to the 
remainder bring down the next period for a dividend. 

3. Square the root found, and multiply it by 300 for a trial divisor. 
Find how many times this divisor is contained in the dividend, and write 
the result in the root. Multiply the last figure of the root by the rest, and 
by 30; square the last figure of the root, and add these two products to the 
trial divisor; the sum will be the complete divisor. 

4. Multiply the complete divisor by the last figure of the root, and sub- 
tract the product from the dividend; to the remainder bring down the next 
period for a new dividend, and so proceed until all the periods are brought 
down. 

Example: What is the cube root of 19683? 
19683( 27 Ans. 
8 
2 X 2 X 300 = 1200111683 
2 X 7 X 30= 420 



7 X 7^ ^ 49 

16691 



11683 



Example: What is the cube root of 70.189453125? 

70.189453125( 4.125 Ans. 
64 



4 X 4 X 300 = 
4 X 1 X 30 = 
1X1 = 

41 X 41 X 300 = 

41 X 2X 30 = 

2X 2 = 



412X412X300 = 

412X 5X 30 = 

5X 5 = 



4800 

120 

1 

4921 


6189 
4921 


504300 
2460 

4 


1268453 
1013528 


506764 




50923200 1 254925125 
61800 254925125 
25 


50985025 







38 



ARITHMETIC. 



Kxample: What is the cube root of 36926037) 



36926037(333 Ans. 
27 



3 X 3 X 300 == 
3 X 3 X 30 = 
3X3 

33 X 33 X300= 

33 X 3 X 30= 

3X3 = 



2700 

270 

9 


9926 
8937 


2979 




326700 

2970 

9 


1989037 
1989037 



329679 



Example: What is the cube root of 75955677875? 

75955677875(4235 Ans. 
64 



4 X 
4 X 
2 X 


4 X 300 
2 X 30 
2 


42 X 

42 X 

3 X 


42 X 300 
3 X 30 
3 


-23 X 423 X 300 
-23 X 5 X 30 
5X 5 



4800 

240 

4 

5044 


11955 
10088 


529200 11867677 
3780 11598967 
9 1 
532989 I 


53678700 

63450 

25 

53742175 


268710875 
268710875 




TIM^ TABI,:^. 



Showing the number of days from any day in one month to the same 
day in any other month. 



JAN. FEB. MAK. APL. MAT JUNE JULY AUG 



UEC. 



To January. . 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Jiiiy 

August .... 
September 
October.... 
November. 
December. 



3651 31 
334365 
306]337 
275306 
245'276 
214 245 
181 215 
153 184 
122 153 
92 123 



61 
31 



92 
62 



59| 90 
28! 59 
3651 31 
334:365 
304 335 
J273304 
243 274 
212243 
181212 
|151|182 
il20{151 
I 90121 



120151 
89 120 



61 

30 

365 



92 
61 
31 



334365 
304335 
273 304 



242 
212 
181 
151 



273 
243 
212 

182 



181212 

150181 

122 153 

91122 

61i 92 

30 61 

365| 31 

334365 

303334 

273304 

242273 

212I243 



243 

212 

184 

153 

123 

92 

62 

31 

365 

335 

304 

274 



273 

242 

214 

183 

152 

122 

92 

61 

30 

365 

334 

304 



304 

273 

245 

214 

184 

153 

123 

92 

61 

31 

365 

335 



334 

303 

275 

244 

214 

183 

153 

122 

91 

61 

30 

365 



Example: Look for April at the left hand and September at the top. 
In the angle is 153. 



ARITHMETIC. 



39 



Value of Articles Per Piece, Reckoning From Price Per Doajen. 



1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 



8^ 


10i\ 


121/2 


1^\ 


16?^ 


18M 


201 


22H 


25 


29| 


31hi 


331^ 


35i^, 


371/2 


39i^2 


41^ 


4334 


451 


47Ji 


17 


21 


25 


29 


33 


38 


42 


46 


50 


58 


63 


67 


71 


75 


79 


83 


88 


92 


96 


25 


31 


38 


44 


50 


56 


63 


69 


75 


88 


94 


1.00 


1.06 


1.13 


1.19 


1.25 


1.31 


1.38 


1.44 


33 


42 


50 


56 


67 


75 


83 


92 


1.00 


1.17 


1.25 


1.33 


1.42 


1.50 


1.58 


1.67 


1.75 


1.83 


1.92 


42 


52 


63 


73 


83 


94 


1.04 


1.15 


1.25 


1.46 


1.56 


1.67 


1.77 


1.88 


1.98 


2.08 


2.19 


2.29 


2.40 


50 


63 


75 


88 


1.00 


1.13 


1.25 


1.38 


1.50 


1.75 


1.88 


2.00 


2.13 


2.25 


2.34 


2.50 


2.63 


2.75 


2.87 


58 


73 


88 


1.02 


1.17 


1.31 


1.46 


1.60 


1.75 


2.04 


2.19 


2.33 


2.48 


2.63 


2.77 


2.92 


3.06 


3.21 


3.35 


67 


83 


1.00 


1.17 


1.33 


1.50 


1.67 


1.83 


2.00 


2.33 


2.50 


2.67 


2.83 


3.00 


3.17 


3.33 


3.50 


3.67 


3.83 


75 


94 


1.13 


1.29 


1.50 


1.69 


1.88 


2.06 


2.25 


2.63 


2.81 


3.00 


3.19 


3.38 


3.56 


3.75 


3.94 


4.13 


4.31 


83 


1.04 


1.25 


1.46 


1.67 


1.88 


2.08 


2.29 


2.50 


2.92 


3.13 


3.33 


3.54 


3.75 


3.96 


4.17 


4.38 


4.58 


4.79 


92 


1.15 


1.38 


1.60 


1.83 


2.06 


2.29 


2.52 


2.75 


3.21 


3.44 


3.67 


3.89 


4.13 


4.23 


4.58 


4.81 


5.04 


5.27 


1.00 


1.25 


1.50 


1.75 2.0o'2.25 

1 1 


2.50 


2.75 


3.00 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4 25 


4.504.75 


5.00 


5.25 


5.50 


5.75 



50 
.00 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 
3.50 
4.00 
4.50 
5.00 
5.50 
6.00 



1 


52,1, 


54| 


56 M 


58M 


6O1I, 


62^, 


64/, 


Q^H 


68^ 


70| 


721i 


75 


77iiJ 79^ 


8I14 


SSVa 


871/2 


91 K 


951 


1.00 


2 


1.04 


1.08 


1.13 


1.17 


1.21 


1.25 


1.29 


1.33 


1.38 


1.42 


1.46 


1.50 


1.54 1.58 


1.63 


1.67 


1.75 


1.83 


1.92 


2.00 


3 


1.56 


1.63 


1.69 


1.75 


1.81 


1.88 


1.94 


2.00 


2.06 


2.13 


2.19 


2.25 


2.312.38 


2.44 


2.50 


2.63 


2.75 


2.88 


3.00 


4 


2.08 


2.17 


2.25 


2.33 


2.42 


2.50 


2.58 


2.67 


2.75 


2.83 


2.93 


3.00 


3.08 3.17 


3.25 


3.33 


3.50 


3.67 


3.83 


4.00 


5 


2.60 


2.71 


2.81 


2.92 


3.02 


3.13 


3.23 


3.33 


3.44 


3.54 


3.65 


3.75 


3.85 3.96 


4.06 


4.17 


4.38 


4.58 


4.79 


5.00 


6 


3.13 


3.25 


3.38 


3.50 


3.63 


3.75 


3.88 


4.00 


4.13 


4.25 


4.38 


4.50 


4.63 4.75 


4.88 


5.00 


5.25 


5.50 


5.75 


6.00 


7 


3.65 


3.79 


3.94 


4.08 


4.23 


4.38 


4.52 


4.67 


4.81 


4.96 


5.10 


5.25 


5.40 5.54 


5.69 


5.83 


6.13 


6.42 


6.71 


7.00 


8 


4.17 


4.33 


4.50 


4.67 


4.93 


5.00 


5.17 


5.33 


5.50 


5.67 


5.83 


6.00 


6.15 6.33 


6.50 


6.67 


7.00 


7.33 


7.66 


8.00 


9 


4.69 


4.88 


5.06 


5.25 


5.44 


5.63 


5.81 


6.00 


6.19 


6.38 


6.56 


6.75 


6.94 7.13 


7.31 


7.50 


7.88 


8.25 


8.62 


9.00 


10 


5.21 


5.42 


5.63 


5.83 


6.04 


6.25 


6.46 


6.67 


6.88 


7.08 


7.29 


7.50 


7.71 


7.92 


8.13 


8.33 


8.75 


9.17 


9.58 


10.00 


11 


5.73 


5.96 


6.19 


6.42 


6.65 


6.88 


7.11 


7.33 


7.56 


7.79 


8.02 


8.25 


8.48 8.71 

1 


8.94 


9.17 


9.63 


10.08 


10.54 


11.00 


12 


6.25 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


7.25 


7.50 


7.75 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.75 


9.00 


9.25 9.50 

1 


9.75 


10.00 


10.50 


11.00 


11.50 


12.00 



WEIGHT OF COMMON AXI,:^S. 



IfOng Arm, Per Set. 



IV^ inch, about 54 lbs. 

IV4 " " 64 " 

1% " " 83 " 

11/2 " " 100 " 

1% " " 118 " 



l%inch, about 137 lbs. 



1% 
2 

21/8 

2V4 



.161 
.188 
.210 
.245 



Railroad freight car and coach axles weigh from 385 to 470 pounds 
each, according to diameter. 

Street car axles run from 21/2 to 31/2 inches in diameter. 



40 



ANGLES — ALLOYS. 



I,IGHT W:eiGHT SOFT ST:^^!/. 



Angles, and Channel Bars. 

iy2'' X iy2'' angles, 1.20 lbs. per lineal foot. 
1%^^ X 11/4'^ " 1.00 " " 
1'' X V " .85 " " 

%^'X %'^ " .74 " " 

%''X %'' '' .65 " " 

IV2" channel bar, 1.00 lbs. per lineal foot 






4^' 

31/2 

23/4 

21/2 
2V4 

2'' 



.93 " 

.75 " " 

.65 " " 

.55 " " 

.50 " " 

Square Root Angle Iron. 

X 4'' X %'' = 9 lbs. per lineal foot. 
X 3>^'' X 3/8^' = 7.6 " " 
X 3'' X fV' = 5.9 " " 
X 2%" X i%'' = 5.4 " " 
X 21/2'' X 14'' = 3.75 " " 



X 21/4" X 14' 

X 2'' X 14' 

1%" X 13/4'' X V/ 

11/2'' X 11/2" X t'g' 



IV4' 

IVs' 
1'' 



X IV/' X ^^ 
X IVs'' X f^e' 
X 1'' X Vs 

%" X i/s' 



= 3.5 
= 3.1 
= 2.7 
= 1.8 
= 1.4 
= 1.3 
= 0.8 
= 0.6 



X 
3/4'' X 34- X 1/8- = 0.4 " " 
The above are "light patterns" iron. 
For steel add 2 per cent to weights given. 

Alloys. 

COPPER. ZINC. TIN. 

Common Brass 84.3 5.2 10.5 

Hard " 79.3 6.4 

Red Bronze ...87 13 

Gun Metal 90 

German Silver 33.3 33.4 

Muntz Metal .....60 40 

Pewter 

White Metal.. 7.4 7.4 



NICKEL. ANTIMONY 



10 






^ 


333 




86 


...... 


14 


28.4 





56.8 



ALLOYS— ANCHORS. 



41 



Tin and I^ead Alloys. 

The following alloys are prepared according to Professor Abel's for- 
mnlae, their constituents and melting points being as follows: 

CONSTITUENTS. 
PARTS. PARTS. DEC. FAHR. 

TIN. LEAD. MELTING POINT. 

2 1 340 

9 4 344 

10 4 348 

11 4.... 352 

12 4 356 

13 4 360 

17 4 370 

22 4 : 380 

4 5 390 

4 6 412 

4 7 420 

4 9 460 

4 12 482 

4 15 494 

4 17 502 

4 20 512 

4 25 520 

4 30 530 

4 ....38 540 

4 48 550 

4 70 558 

Melting point of lead = 620 
An alloy made of 12 parts of tin, 25 of lead, 13 of cadmium, and 50 of 
bismuth, will melt at 155 degrees. Another made of 3 parts of tin, 5 of 
lead, and 8 of bismuth, will melt at 210 degrees, or in boiling water. 



Weight of Anchors. 

Table showing average weight per 100 feet and weights of anchors to 
correspond for chain cables. 





AVERAGE WEIGHT 








PER 100 FEET. 


WEIGHT OF 




OF CHAIN. 


SHORT LINK. 


ANCHOR. 


PROOF. 


INCHES. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


1^6 


122 


100 


2,250 



y2 
H 



160 
200 
250 
320 
420 
500 
590 
670 
790 
900 



125 4,000 

150 5,000 

200 7,000 

250 9,000 

300 11,000 

400 13,500 

500 16,000 

600 19,000 

700 22,000 

800 25,000 

900 28,500 



1 1020 

li'e 1150 1100 32,000 

11/8 1270 1300 36,000 

lr^6 14-20 1500 40,000 

11/4 1580 1600 44,000 

Ij^e 1'3'20 1800 48,000 

1% 1880 1900 52,000 

li^e 2050 2200 56,000 

iy2 2220 2400 60,000 



42 



AIR. 



Air. 

A cubic foot of air at 60 deg. and under a pressure of 14.7 pounds per 
square inch, weighs 536 grains, and 13.06 cubic feet weigh one pound. 

Air expands or contracts an equal amount with each degree of varia- 
tion in temperature. 

According to Mariotte, air will take 15 pounds pressure to compress it 
one-half its bulk, 30 pounds to compress it one-half its remaining bulk, and 
so on to infinity. 

Velocity of Air Under Pressure. 



Table of pressures per sq. 
inch in ounces, from % to 
20 ounces; which includes 
the strongest blast ever 
found on any cupola in 
this country. 


Table of velocity infect per 
minute of Air (at 50° 
temperature Fahrenheit) 
escaping into open air 
through any shaped hole 
from anypipe or reservoir 
in which the air is com- 
pressed. 


Table giving the number of 
cubic feet of Air per min- 
ute (at 50° Fahrenheit), 
which may be discharged 
through a proper shaped 
mouth piece, the diame- 
ter of which must be 
1.362 inches, the area 
being 1.07 inches. 


V4 

14, 


2584.80 ... 






17.944 


3657.60 ... 






. 25.400 


3/ 


4482.00 ... 






. 31.124 


1 


5175.00 ... 






. 35.93 


2 


7338.24 ... 






. 50.96 


3 


9006.42 ... 






. 62.54 


4 


10421.58 ... 






. 72.37 


5 


11676.00 ... 






. 81.08 


6 


12817.08 ... 






. 89.01 


7 


13872.72 ... 






.. 96.34 


8 


14861.16 ... 






. 103.20 


9 


15795.06 ... 






. 109.69 


-in 


16683.51 ... 






. 115.86 


11 


17533.50 ... 






. 121.76 


1 2 


18350.34 ... 






. 127.43 


13 


19138.26 ... 






. 132.90 


14 


19900.68 ... 







. 138.20 


•ir. 


20640.48 ... 


. 143.34 


16 


21360.00 ... 






. 148.33 


1 7 


22060.80 ... 






. 153.26 


18 


22745.40 ... 






. 157.96 


19 


23415.00 ... 







. 162.60 


20 


24070.80 ... 


. 167.16 





ALUMINIUM. 



43 



Weight of Pure Aluminium and Aluminium Bronze, in Sheets. 


BROWN & 


THICKNESS IN 


PURE ALUMI- 


"A" GRADE Al 


1 "C" GRADE Al 


SHARPE'S GAUGE 


DECIMALS OF 


NIUM WEIGHT, 


BRONZE WEIGHT 


BRONZE WEIGHT 


NO. 


1 IN. 


1 SQ. FOOT. 


1 SQ. FOOT. 


1 SQ. FOOT. 






LBS. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


0000 


.460 


6.624 


18.676 


19.872 


000 


.410 


5.904 


13.646 


17.712 


00 


.365 


5.2560 


14.8190 


15.7680 





.325 


4.6800 


13.1950 


14.040 


1 


.290 


4.1760 


11.774 


12.528 


2 


.258 


3.7152 


10.4748 


11.1456 


3 


.230 


3.312 


9.338 


9.936 


4 


.205 


2.9520 


8.3230 


8.8560 


5 


.182 


2.6208 


7.3892 


7.8624 


6 


.162 


2.3328 


6.5772 


6.9984 


7 


.145 


2.0880 


5.8870 


6.2640 


8 


.129 


1.8576 


5.2374 


5.5728 


9 


.115 


1.6560 


4.6690 


4.9680 


10 


.102 


1.4688 


4.1412 


4.4064 


11 


.0907 


1.30608 


3.68242 


3.91824 


12 


.0808 


1.16352 


3.28048 


3.490 


13 


.0720 


1.0368 


2.9232 


3.1104 


14 


.0640 


.9216 


2.5984 


2.7648 


15 


.0570 


.8008 


2.3142 


2.4624 


16 


.0508 


.73152 


2.06248 


2.19456 


17 


.0453 


.65232 


1.83918 


1.95696 


18 


.0403 


.58032 


1.63618 


1.74096 


19 


.0359 


.51692 


1.45754 


1.55088 


20 


.0320 


.4608 


1.2992 


1.3824 


21 


.0285 


.41040 


1.15710 


1.23120 


22 


.0254 


.36576 


1.03124 


1.09728 


23 


.0225 


.32400 


.91350 


.97200 


24 


.0201 


.28944 


.81606 


.86832 


25 


.0179 


.25776 


.72674 


.77328 


26 


.0160 


.2304 


.6496 


.6912 


27 


.0142 


.20448 


.57652 


.61344 


28 


.0127 


.18288 


.51562 


.54864 


29 


.0113 


.16272 


.45878 


.48816 


30 


.0100 


.1440 


.40600 


.43200 


31 


.00893 


.128592 


.362528 


.385776 


32 


.00795 


.114480 


.322770 


.343440 


33 


.00708 


.101952 


.287448 


.305856 


34 


.00630 


.09072 


.25578 


.27216 


35 


.00561 


.08078 


.227766 


.242352 


36 


.00500 


.07200 


.20300 


.2160 


37 


.00445 


.064080 


.180670 


.192240 


38 


.00397 


.057168 


.161182 


.171504 


39 


.00353 


.050832 


.143318 


.152496 


40 


.00314 


.045216 


.127484 


.135648 


Specific gr. 
Wt. 1 sq. loot, 




2.77 


7.85 


8.3 


i 








1 in. thick. 


/ 


14.40 lbs. 


40.6 lbs. 


43.2 lbs. 




) 





Aluminum melts at 1,300 deg. Fahr. 

Aluminum is not attacked by nitric acid, but is dissolved by hydro- 
chloric acid. Sulphur does not attack it. It is stained by perspiration. 



44 



ACRE— BOILERS. 



The following table gives the dimensions of lots containing one acre. 
10 rods X 16 rods = 1 acre. 



8 " 


X 20 


«' 


= 1 


5 " 


X 32 


'' 


= 1 


4 •' 


X 40 


<( 


= 1 


5 yds 


X 968 


vds. 


= 1 


10 " 


X 484 


(( 


= 1 


20 " 


X 242 


" 


= 1 


40 " 


X 121 


" 


= 1 


220 feet 


X 198 


feet 


= 1 


110 " 


X 396 


" 


= 1 


60 " 


X 726 


t< 


= 1 


120 " 


X 363 


" 


= 1 


400 " 


X 108.9 


" 


= 1 


300 " 


X 145.2 


" 


= 1 


100 " 


X 435.6 


<< 


= 1 



sp:ecifications of tubui^ar stationary boii^:^rs. 



Fifteen Square Feet Heating Surface Per Horse-Power. 



HORSE-POWER. 


10 


12 


15 


20 


20 


25 


30 


35 

44 
12 
46 
534 
22 
40 


40 


40 


Diameter Boiler, in inches 


32 

7 
20 
152 
14 
28 


34 

7 

25 

185 

16 

24 


36 

8 

28 

221 

16 

28 


36 
10 
30 
304 
18 
35 


42 
8 
38 
306 
20 
28 


42 
10 
38 
380 
20 
35 


44 
10 
46 
447 
22 
35 


44 

14 

46 

621 

22 
50 


48 




12 


No of Flues 3 inch diameter 


53 


Square Feet Heating; Surface 


600 


Diameter of Stack Surface 


22 


Length of Stack, in feet 


40 






Wt. Boiler and Britchen, about 

Wt. of Boiler Fixtures, about 


1900 
1500 

3400 


2300 
1650 


8550 
1700 


3050 
2nnn 


3450 
2250 


4050 
2550 

6600 


4400 
2650 


5050 
2950 


5700 
3250 

8950 


6000 
3400 








Wt. Boiler and Fixtures , about 


3950 


4250 


5050 


5700 


7050 


8000 


9400 



HORSE-POWER. 


45 50 


60 


60 

60 

12 

82 

915 

28 
40 


70 

60 

14 

82 

1064 

28 
50 


80 

60 

16 

82 

1213 

28 
60 


90 

66 
15 
100 
1370 
30 
60 


100 


125 1 


Diameter Boiler, in inches 


48 .^4 


54 
15 
64 
906 
26 
50 


66 
16 
102 
1485 
30 
60 


72 




14 
52 

698 
22 
50 


12 
66 

748 
26 
40 


16' 


No of Flues 3 inch diameter .... 


138! 


Square Feet Heating Surface 


1882' 


Diameter of Stack Surface. 


36' 


Length of Stack, in feet 


60, 






Wt. Boiler and Britchen, about 

Wt. of Boiler Fixtures, about 


6800 
3750 


7400 
3750 


8700 
4050 


8950 
4350 


9950 
4750 


11100 
4950 


12900 
5400 


13600 
5600 


16500 

6500 


Wt. Boiler and Fixtures, about 


10550 


11150 


12750 


13300 


14700 


16050 


18300 


21000 


23000 



The horse-power given above is a commercial rating. 

SPECIFICATIONS OF CYI^INDBR BOII/:^RS. 



HORSE POWER. 



13 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


30 


30 


30 


30 


36 


36 


40 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


22 


22 


22 


22 


22 


22 


22 


16 


18 


18 


20 


22 


22 


22 


30 


30 


30 


30 


40 


40 


50 


3100 


3300 


3500 


4000 


4900 


5700 


6600 



28 



Diameter of Boiler, in inches. 

Length of Boiler, in feet 

Diameter of Dome, in inches. 
Height of Dome, in inches.... 
Diameter of Stack, in inches. 

Length oi Stack, in feet 

"Weight of Boiler, about 



40 
40 
20 
22 
24 
50 



BOILERS. 



45 



TWO-FI^UE BOII/:^RS. 



. 




i-> 


en 


en 


Cfl 


Cfl 


m 


» 


w 


U] 


M 


^W 


W 


fa w 


U* M 


H 


X 


u 


^ a 


S s 


fe W 


O 53 


O W 


^ 


► o 


fe 


O u 


S o 


O u 


M ^ 


Cfl <^ 


o 


K z: 




aj z 


o z 


« z 


w Z 


Cfl Z 


»i 


w "^ 


.. 


w '^ 


Q "^ 


w "^ 


w -^ 




^ 


s 


X 




o 


Si.- 




Si 


K 
O 


< 

5 


o 


IS 


N 


<5 

Q In 




15 


42 


16 


14 


24x24 


24 


V4 


% 


20 


42 


18 


14 


24x24 


24 


^4 


% 


30 


44 


20 


16 


26x26 


26 


1/4 


% 


40 


48 


20 


18 


26x26 


30 


1% 


V2 


45 


48 


24 


18 


30x30 


30 


1^6 


¥2 


50 


60 


20 


24 


30x30 


30 


1^6 


V2 


60 


60 


26 


24 


30x30 


30 


.% 


V2 



HORI^ONTAIv TUBUI<AR BOIIv:^RS. 



With 4-inch Tubes. 



Hor6e-Power 


30 
42 


a5 

46 


40 
46 


45 

50 


50 
50 


60 
54 


70 
54 


80 
60 


90 
62 


100 
66 


125 


Diameter in inches . . 


72 


Length in feet 


12 


12 


14 


12 


14 


14 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


Diam. of Tubes, in-.- 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


Lengthof Tubes, ft.. 


12 


12 


14 


12 


14 


14 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


Number of Tubes 


22 


26 


26 


35 


35 


42 


42 


50 


55 


64 


80 


Size of Dome, inches 


22x22 


24x24 


24x24 


28x28 


28x28 


30x30 


30x30 


36x36 


36x36 


36x40 


40x40 


Approx.Wt. of Boiler 


3900 


4300 


4800 


5300 


6000 


7600 


8500 


9900 


11000 


12500 


14500 



SIX-INCH Fi,ui^ boii,:e^r. 



Horee-Power 

Diameter in inches 

Length in feet 

Number of Flues 

Size of Dome in inches 
Approx. Wt. of Boilers 



25 


30 


35 


40 50 


60 


70 


75 


90 


40 


44 


44 


48 50 


54 


58 


60 


66 


14 


14 


17 


16 18 


20 


20 


20 


20 


7 


8 


8 


10 12 


12 


15 


16 


20 


22x22 


24x24 


24x24 


28x28 30x30! 30x30 


36x36 


36x36 


36x40 


3850 


4300 


5050 


6000l 7500 


8600 


10000 


10900 


13100 



40x40 
15400 



SCOTCH MARINE BOII^ER. 



Twelve Square Feet of Heating Surface to the Horse-Power, 





SHELL. 


FIRE BOX 
FLUE. 




TUBES. 




DOME. 


w 
a 

< 

K 

O Cfl 

Z 
< 

w 


si 


I 

tn 

US, 

o 


u 




z 


W 

N 

tfl 


o 
z 
w 




>< 

o 

< 




Inches. 


Inches. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Sq. Ft. 


Pounds. 


6 


36x48 


18x40 


32 


2 


40 


18x12 


73 


2250 


8 


36x54 


18x46 


40 


2; 


46 


18x14 


98 


2550 


10 


42x54 


21x46 


52 


2 


46 


20x16 


121 


2950 


12 


44x60 


22x50 


58 


2 


50 


20x16 


145 


3150 


15 


48x66 


24x54 


68 


2 


54 


24x16 


181 


4150 


20 


54x72 


26x60 


82 


1 2 


60 


26x18 


242 


4900 



46 



BOILERS. 



Specifications of Submerged Tubular Boilers. 



HORSE-POWER. 



8 10 12 13 14 15 18 



25 30 35 40 45 50 



Diameter in inches 

H« ight in inches 

Height of fire box 

NumbiT of tubes 

Diuiiieier of tubes in ins 
l.erigih of tubes in ins. . 
Dinin-u r of stack in ins, 
Weight of boiler 



60 
27 
54 
2 
19 
111/2 



'00 11075 



30 
72 
28 
54 
2 
27 
151/2 
1250 



30 
84 
28 
54 
2 
38 
151/2 
1450 



34 
72 
28 
70 
2 
27 
17 
1450 



34 

84 
28 
70 
2 
38 
17 
1700 



84 
30 
70 
2 
38 
18 
1930 



36 
96 
30 
70 
2 
48 
18 
2200 



48 48 
102 108 
30 30 



134 
2 

45 

24 
4000 



134 



48 
120 

30 

134 

2 

63 

24 
460052005400 



Plain Vertical Tubular Boilers. 



VERTICAL SEAMS DOUBLE RIVETED, 



HOUSE-POWER. 



Diameter in inches 

Height in inches 

Height of fire box 

Number of tubes 

Diameter of tubes, inches 
Length of tubes, inches. . 
Diameter of stack, inches 
Weight of boiler 



3 


4 


5 


6 


« 


10 


12 


14 


16 


20 


25 


30 


20 


24 


24 


26 I3O 


30 


36 


36 


36 


42 


42 


42 


48 


50 


60 


60 


60 


72 


72 


84 


96 


96 


108 


120 


18 


18 


22 


22 


22 


24 


24 


28 


32 


32 


32 


34 


28 


31 


31 


37 


43 


49 


61 


61 


61 


79 


85 


91 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


30 


32 


40 


38 


38 


48 


48 


56 


64 


64 


76 


86 


10 


111/, 


IIH, 


15H 


151/? 


17 


18 


18 


18 


20 


20 


20 


600 


800 


1000 


1100 


1200 


1400 


1700 


2000 


2500 


3200 


3500 


3800 



35 

48 
96 
34 

138 
2 
64 
34 

4000 



Specifications of Portable Boilers. 



HORSE-POWER. 


6 


8 


10 


12 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


50 




26 
34 
21 
29 
17 
60 
12 
18 
9 


28 
36 
22 
33 

20 

72 

^ 

101/^ 


30 
38 
24 
35 
22 
78 
14 
20 
11 


32 
38 
26 
35 
26 
72 
16 
20 
lOM 


32 
44 
26 
35 
26 
78 
16 
20 
12 


34 
52 

28 
37 
30 
90 
16 
24 
131/2 


36 
52 
30 
40 
34 
96 
18 
24 
14 


40 
60 
34 
43 
40 
98 
20 
30 
141/2 


40 
60 
34 
43 
42 

108 
20 
35 

151/2 


40 
60 
34 
43 
42 
126 
20 
40 
17 


44 


Length of furnace, in inches 

Width of furnace in inches 


64 
38 


Height of furnace, in inches 


50 


Number tubes, 3 inches diameter 

Length of tubes, in inches 

Diameter of stack, in inches 

Length of stack, in feet 

Length of boiler over all, in feet 


48 
138 
22 
40 

I81/2 


Weight of boiler on skids 

Weight of boiler fixtures 


2600 
450 


3150 
5(X) 


3650 
550 


3900 
600 


4150 
650 


5100 
9.50 


5S00 
1000 


7000 
1150 


7450 
1250 


7900 
1350 


9900 
1500 


Weight of boiler and fixtures 


3050 


36.50 


4200 


4500 


4800 


6050 


6900 


8150 


8700 9300 11400 



PORTABI^B BOII^l^RS, I^OCOMOTIV^ STYI,:)^. 







Water Fronts and Open Bottom. 










HCRSE-POWER. 


8 


' 


10 


12 


15 


20 


25 


30 




35 


40 


50 


60 


,. 


80 


Diam'r Of Boiler 
























in inches 


28 


5>8 


30 


32 


32 


34 


36 


36 


40 


42 


44 


48 


54 


56 


Length of Fire 






























Box in inches. 


36 


36 


38 


38 


44 


52 


52 


52 


52 


54 


64 


64 


64 


64 


Height of Fire 






























Box in inches. 


30 


.30 


31 


33 


33 


36 


38 


40 


42 


46 


48 


52 


52 


54 


Width of Fire 






























Box in inches. 


23 


23 


25 


27 


27 


29 


31 


31 


35 


37 


39 


43 


49 


51 


Number 3 -inch 






























Tubes 


18 


18 


22 


26 


26 


28 


34 


34 


40 


43 


48 


56 


60 


66 


Length of Tubes 






























in inches 


66 


74 


78 


72 


78 


90 


96 


120 


102 


120 


132 


144 


150 


156 


Size of Dome. . 


15x18 


16x18 


16x18 


18x20 


18x20 


20x22 


22x24 


22x24 


24x26 


24x26 


26x30 


28x30 


30x32 


34x36 


Diam. of Smoke 






























Stack in in.... 


13 


13 


15 


16 


17 


18 


18 


18 


20 


20 


22 


24 


26 


26 


L'ngth of Smoke 






























Stack in feet.. 


1,5 


15 


15 


18 


20 


25 


25 


25 


25 


25 


30 


35 


35 


35 


Wight of boiler 


3200 


3400 


3800 


4360 


4600 


5900 


6600 


7100 


7800 


8700 


10500 


11500 


13000 


14500 



BOILERS. 



47 



Number of Brick Required for Setting Stationary Boilers with 
Full Flush Fronts. 



HORSE-POWER 
OF BOILER. 


DIAMETER OF 

BOILER IN 

INCHES. 


LENGTH OF 

BOILER IN 

FEET. 


NUMBER OF 
FIRE BRICK. 


NO. OF COMMON 
BRICK ABOVE 
FLOOR LEVEL. 


10 


32 


8 


300 


5500 


12 


34 


8 


300 


5700 


15 


36 


8 


350 


6000 


20 


36 


10 


400 


6300 


25 


40 


10 


400 


8000 


30 


42 


12 


500 


10000 


35 


44 


12 


500 


10300 


40 


44 


14 


500 


12000 


45 


48 


12 


550 


14000 


50 


48 


14 


600 


15500 


60 


54 


14 


700 


18500 


70 


54 


16 


700 


20000 


80 


60 


16 


800 


24000 


90 


62 


16 


800 


24000 


100 


66 


16 


1000 


25500 


125 


72 


16 


1200 


27500 



Number of Bricks Required for Setting Stationary Boilers 
with Half Arch Fronts. 



HORSE-POWER 
OF BOILER. 


DIAMETER OF 

BOILER IN 

INCHES. 


LENGTH OF 

BOILER IN 

FEET. 


NUMBER OF 
FIRE BRICK. 


NO. OF COMMON 
BRICK ABOVE 
FLOOR LEVEL. 


10 


32 


8 


300 


3200 


12 


34 


8 


300 


3400 


15 


36 


8 


350 


5700 


20 


36 


10 


400 


6000 


25 


40 


10 


400 


7400 


30 


42 


12 


500 


9600 


35 


44 


12 


500 


10000 


40 


44 


14 


500 


11800 


45 


48 


12 


550 


13500 


50 


48 


14 


600 


15000 


60 


54 


14 


700 


18000 


70 


54 


16 


700 


19500 


80 


60 


16 


800 


23400 


90 


62 


16 


800 


23400 


100 


66 


16 


1000 


24800 


125 


72 


16 


1200 


26700 



BOII,:eR POWER. 



The Centennial Exposition standard is : The evaporation of 30 pounds 
of water per hour from feed water having a temperature of 100 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, into steam having a pressure of 70 pounds per square 
inch above the atmosphere, is equal to one horse-power. The American So- 
ciety of Mechanical Engineers' standard is: The evaporation of 34V2 pounds 
of water per hour from and at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. 



48 



BOILERS. 



The difference between the two standards is only about 3^0 of one per 
cent., consequently they are practically the same. With a 60-inch tubular 
boiler, properly made, well set, and carefullj^ fired — from 8 to 10 pounds of 
water to one pound of coal should be made into steam of 60 pounds pres- 
sure per square inch. This result would depend upon the quality of the coal, 
and the temperature of the feed water. 

Practically no more coal will be required to convert one pound of water 
into steam at 80 pounds, than it will at 60 pounds. 

Theoretically, however, it will require ^q of one per cent., or about ^|o 
part more. 

Table Giving Horse-Power of Boilers the Following Si^es: 



Diameter 


Length 




Length 


Diameter 


Heating 


Horse- 


Shell. 


Shell. 


Tiibes. 


Tubes. 


Tubes. 


Surface. 


60 lbs. 
Pressure. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Square Feet. 


72 


18 


70 


18 


4 


1502 


100 


72 


16 


90 


16 


3V2 


1472 


98 


72 


16 


112 


16 


3 


1496 


99 


72 


15 


112 


15 


3 


1400 


93 


60 


18 


65 


18 


31/2 


1200 


80 


60 


17 


65 


17 


SV2 


1148 


76- 


60 


16 


65 


16 


3^2 


1075 


72 


60 


16 


80 


16 


3 


1088 


72 


60 


15 


80 


15 


3 


1020 


68 


60 


14 


80 


14 


3 


952 


63 


60 


13 


80 


13 


3 


884 


59 


54 


18 


50 


18 


31/2 


951 


63 


54 


17 


50 


17 


3V2 


900 


60 


54 


16 


50 


16 


31/2 


795 


53 


54 


16 


60 


16 


3 


832 


55 


54 


15 


60 


15 


3 


780 


52 


54 


14 


60 


14 


3 


728 


48 


54 


13 


60 


13 


3 


676 


45 


54 


12 


60 


12 


3 


624 


41 


48 


16 


40 


16 


31/2 


683 


46 


48 


16 


49 


16 


3 


684 


46 


48 


15 


49 


15 


3 


642 


43 


48 


14 


49 


14 


3 


600 


40 


48 


13 


49 


13 


3 


555 


37 


48 


12 


49 


12 


3 


513 


34 


48 


11 


65 


11 


21/2 


542 


36 


48 


10 


65 


10 


2V2 


495 


33 


42 


15 


38 


15 


3 


508 


34 


42 


14 


38 


14 


3 


476 


32 


42 


13 


38 


13 


3 


441 


30 


42 


12 


38 


12 


3 


408 


27 


42 


11 


45 


11 


21/2 


390 


26 


42 


10 


45 


10 


2^2 


355 


24 


42 


9 


45 


9 


2y2 


320 


22 


42 


8 


45 


8 


2y2 


285 


19 


42 


7 


45 


7 


21/2 


248 


16 



BOILERS. 



49 



Table of Pressures, Allowed by XJ. S. Authorities, on Steam- 
boats Plying on the Mississippi River and Tributaries. 



THICKNESS OP 






















IRON 










DIAMETER OP BOILER 


IX INCHES 










IN INCHES. 
























34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


44 


46 


48 


50 


52 


54 


56 


58 


60 




LBS. 

140 


LBS. 

133 


LBS. 
126 


LBS. 
119 


LBS. 
114 


LBS. 

108 


LBS. 

104 


LBS. 
99 


LBS. 


LBS. 


LBS. 

88 


LBS. 

85 


LBS. 

82 


LBS. 


.19 


95 


92 


79 


.20 


148 


140 


132 


126 


120 


114 


109 


105 


100 


96 


93 


90 


86 


84 


.21 


1.55 


147 


139 


1.32 


126 


120 


115 


110 


105 


101 


98 


94 


91 


88 


.22 


163 


154 


149 


13S 


132 


126 


120 


115 


111 


106 


102 


99 


95 


92 


.23 


170 


161 


152 


144 


138 


131 


126 


120 


115 


111 


107 


103 


99 


96 


.24 


177 


168 


159 


151 


144 


1.37 


131 


126 


120 


117 


112 


lOS 


104 


100 


.25 


185 


175 


165 


157 


150 


143 


136 


131 


126 


121 


116 


112 


108 


105 


.26 


192 


182 


172 


163 


156 


148 


142 


1.36 


131 


126 


121 


117 


113 


109 


.27 


200 


189 


179 


170 


162 


154 


147 


141 


136 


130 


126 


121 


117 


113 


.28 


207 


191 


185 


176 


168 


160 


152 


147 


141 


135 


130 


126 


121 


117 


.29 


214 


203 


192 


182 


174 


166 


158 


152 


146 


140 


134 


130 


126 


121 


.30 


222 


210 


198 


189 


180 


171 


164 


157 


151 


145 


140 


VV> 


130 


126 


.31 


229 


217 


205 


195 


186 


177 


169 


162 


156 


1.50 


144 


139 


134 


130 



To find the pressure allowed on other size boilers — not given in the 
above table — multiply 12,600 by the thickness of iron in inches, and divide 
the product by the radius of boiler in inches. The quotient will be the re- 
quired pressure in pounds per square inch. The U. S. rule for finding safe 
working boiler pressures is as follows: 

Multiph' I of the lowest tensile strength found stamped on any plate in 
the cylindrical shell by the thickness in inches of the thinnest plate in the 
same shell, and divide the product by the radius of shell in inches. The quo- 
tient will be the pressure per square inch for single riveted boilers. Add 20 
per cent for double riveted boilers. 

Example: Required the pressure for a boiler 72 inches in diameter, iron 
in shell beinj 



7e^' thick. 

7_ 



/g = .4375. 

Then, 12,600 X .4375 = 5512.5000 

5512.5000 

o^ ^ 153 lbs. nearly. Ans. 



And 



Example: Required the pressure for a boiler 72 inches in diameter, 

lowest tensile strength of plates being 65,000 lbs. per square inch, andthin- 

est plate being ^^^^ in thickness, all seams double riveted ? 

I'e = .4-375 

65,000 

— '—— = 4739.4375 



4739.4375 



36 



131.65 lbs. 



131.65 



5 = 26.33 = 20 per cent. 

131.65 
26.33 
157.98 lbs. pressure. Ans. 
The slight discrepancy between this result and that obtained in preced- 
ing example results from the fact that 65,000 lbs. is an assumed T. S. 
4 



50 



BOILERS. 



Shells of Boilers. 



RESISTANCE TO INTERNAL OR BURSTING PRESSURE. 







BURSTING PRESS. PER 






BURSTING PRESS. PER 






SQUARE INCH. 






SQUARE INCH. 






SINGLE 


DOUBLE 






SINGLE 


DOUBLE 


DIAMETER. 


THICKNESS 


RIVETED. 


RIVETED. 


DIAMETER. 


THICKNESS 


RIVETED. 


RIVETED. 


Feet. 


Ins, 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Feet. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


2. 


% 


573 


745 


7.6 


f"6 


191 


248 


2.6 


1/4 


458 


596 


7.6 


% 


229 


298 


3. 


1/4 


382 


496 


8. 


h 


179 


233 


3.4 


1/4 


318 


414 


8. 


% 


215 


279 


3.4 


1% 


398 


518 


•8.6 


i% 


168 


219 


3.6 


14 


327 


426 


8.6 


% 


202 


263 


3.6 


1% 


409 


532 


9. 


h 


159 


207 


4. 


14 


286 


372 


9. 


% 


191 


248 


4. 


l\ 


358 


465 


9.6 


i% 


150 


196 


4.6 


14 


254 


331 


9,6 


% 


181 


235 


4.6 


f\ 


318 


413 


10. 


h 


143 


186 


5. 


1/4 


229 


298 


10. 


% 


172 


224 


5. 


1% 


286 


372 


10, 


1/2 


229 


298 


5.6 


1/4 


208 


270 


10,6 


1% 


136 


177 


5.6 


1% 


260 


338 


10.6 


% 


163 


212 


5.6 


% 


312 


406 


10,6 


1/2 


218 


284 


6. 


1/4 


191 


248 


11. 


% 


156 


203 


6. 


A 


239 


311 


11. 


% 


208 


271 


6. 


% 


286 


372 


11.6 


% 


149 


194 


6.6 


x% 


220 


287 


11.6 


1/2 


199 


259 


6.6 


% 


264 


344 


12. 


% 


143 


166 


7. 


h 


204 


266 


12. 


1/2 


191 


248 


7. 


% 


245 


319 











Tensile resistance of the plates without riveting is taken at a mean of 
55,000 pounds per square inch. 

The single-riveted are estimated at .5 the resistance of the plates, and 
the staggered riveted at .65. 

Such allowances for the resistance and wear of the plates, oxydation, 
etc., are to be made, as the character of the metal, the nature of the ser- 
vices, and the circumstances of using fresh or salt water, etc., will render 
necessary. 

In riveted plates it is customary, in practice, to estimate the safe tensile 
resistance of the metal of a boiler or tube, when exposed to salt water, at 
one-fifth of its ultimate resistance or bursting pressure; and, when exposed 
to fresh water alone, at one-fourth of it. 



BOILERS. 



51 



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39.8 
45.5 
49.2 
36.2 
42.3 
48.4 
54.5 
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57.2 
49.0 
57.0 
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73.5 
68.4 
77.7 
87.5 
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g g S S ^ 5 § 



oj 1^ _ "O 
si mO d 

^s: -a 

^ c^ § 

e cS cj CO 

^ 3 rt o 

P bo . 



oog.S 

. ^-P to 
h i; c c 

9-2^ o 

«: '^ ^ 3 



BOILERS. 



53 



Table of heating surface per horse-power in different styles of boilers; 
the rate of combustion of coal per hour, per square foot of fire surface, re- 
quired for that rating; the relative economy, and the rapidity of steaming. 





SQ. FT. FOR 
ONE HORSE- 
POWER. 


COAL FOR 

EACH so. 

FOOT. 


RELATIVE 
ECONOMY. 


RELATIVE 

RAPIDITY OF 

STEAMING. 


Water Tube 


10tol2 

14 to 18 
8 to 12 
6 to 10 

12 to 16 

15 to 20 


.3 

.25 

.4 

.5 

.275 

.25 


1.00 
.91 

.79 
.69 

.85 
.80 


1.00 


Tubular 


.50 


Flue 


.25 


Plain Cylinder 


.20 


Locomotiye 


.55 


Vertical Tubular 


.60 



Weight of Circular Steel Boiler Heads. 



DIAM. 


THICKNESS OF STEEL — INCHES. 


INCHES. 


3 

16 


1/4 


h 


% 


/g 


1/2 


i% 


24 


24 


32 


41 


49 


57 


65 


73 


26 


29 


38 


47 


57 


67 


76 


86 


28 


33 


44 


55 


66 


77 


88 


98 


30 


38 


51 


63 


76 


89 


101 


113 


32 


43 


58 


72 


86 


101 


115 


130 


34 


49 


65 


81 


98 


114 


130 


145 


36 


55 


73 


91 


109 


128 


146 


162 


38 


61 


81 


102 


123 


142 


163 


182 


40 


68 


90 


113 


135 


158 


180 


203 


42 


75 


99 


124 


149 


174 


199 


223 


44 


82 


109 


136 


164 


191 


218 


245 


46 


89 


119 


149 


179 


209 


239 


268 


48 


97 


130 


162 


192 


227 


259 


292 


50 


106 


141 


176 


211 


246 


281 


317 


52 


114 


152 


190 


228 


266 


304 


343 


54 


123 


164 


205 


246 


287 


328 


369 


56 


132 


177 


221 


265 


309 


353 


397 


58 


142 


189 


237 


284 


331 


379 


426 


60 




204 


254 


305 


356 


408 


457 


64 





233 


291 


349 


407 


466 


521 


66 




248 


310 


371 


435 


495 


557 


68 




263 


329 


394 


460 


526 


591 


70 




279 


348 


418 


487 


557 


627 


72 




295 


368 


442 


516 


589 


663 


74 




311 


389 


467 


545 


623 


700 


76 




328 


410 


492 


575 


657 


739 


78 




346 


432 


519 


605 


692 


778 


80 




367 


458 


550 


641 


733 


830 



54 



BOILERS. 



Weight of Circular Iron Boiler Heads. 



DIAM.IN 


THICKNESS OF IRON— INCHES. 


INCHES. 


i^6 


1/4 


1^ 


% 


/. 


% 


h 




Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


16 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


18 


13 


18 


22 


27 


31 


36 


40 


20 


17 


22 


27 


33 


38 


44 


50 


22 


20 


27 


33 


40 


47 


54 


60 


24 


24 


32 


40 


47 


55 


64 


71 


• 26 


28 


37 


46 


56 


64 


75 


84 


28 


32 


43 


53 


65 


75 


86 


97 


30 


37 


50 


62 


74 


87 


100 


112 


32 


42 


56 


70 


84 


99 


112 


127 


34 


48 


64 


79 


96 


111 


128 


143 


36 


54 


71 


89 


108 


125 


142 


161 


38 


60 


79 


99 


120 


139 


158 


179 


40 


66 


88 


110 


132 


154 


176 


198 


42 


73 


97 


121 


146 


170 


194 


220 


44 


80 


107 


133 


160 


187 


214 


240 


46 


88 


117 


145 


176 


204 


234 


262 


48 


95 


127 


158 


190 


222 


254 


286 


50 


103 


138 


172 


206 


241 


276 


310 


52 


112 


149 


186 


224 


260 


298 


335 


54 


121 


160 


200 


242 


281 


320 


362 


56 


130 


172 


214 


260 


302 


344 


389 


58 ' 


139 


185 


231 


278 


324 


370 


417 


60 


149 


198 


247 


298 


346 


396 


446 



To Find the Strain on the Cylindrical Part of a Boiler. 

Rule: Multiply the diameter in inches by the length in inches, and the 
product by the steam pressure per square inch. 

To Find the Stress per Square Inch of Iron in a Cylindrical 

Boiler. 

Rule: Multiply the inner radius in inches by the steam pressure per 
square inch, and divide the product bj^ the thickness in inches; the quotient 
will be the stress per square inch of metal. 

To Find the Thickness of Plate for a Given Pressure. 

Rule: Multiply the pressure by the radius of boiler in inches, and di- 
vide by I of the tensile strength of boiler plate— for single riveted longitudi- 
nal seams. 

For double rivetecl longitudinal seams: 

From the pressure subtract the pressure multiplied by the decimal .16, 
and multiply the remainder by the radius rn inches. Divide tli's product by 
6 of the tensile strength of plate. 

To Find the Bursting Pressure per Square Inch on a Boiler. 

Rule: From the distance from center to center of rivets subtract the di- 
ameter of rivet hole. Divide the remainder by the first number. This result 
gives the percentage of solid plate. 



BOILERS. 



55 



Next, multiply the tensile strength of plate by its thickness in parts of 
an inch, and this product by the percentage of solid plate. 

Divide this result by one-half the diameter of boiler, and the quotient 
will be the bursting pressure per square inch. 

Example. 

What is the bursting pressure, per square inch, on a boiler 54 inches 
diameter, plates i%- inch thick, tensile strength 50,000 pounds per square 
inch, pitch of rivets SVs inches, diameter of rivet holes | of an inch ? 
31/8 = 3.125 

1= .750 

3.125) 2.37500 ( .76=:percentage. 
2 1875 
18750 
18750 



50.000 X .3125 = 15625.0000 
15625.0000 X .76 = 11875.000000 
11875.000000 = 439.81 pounds. 

27 



Answer. 



BOII<ERS. 

The circumference of a boiler shell 4 feet in diameter is 150 inches; hence, 
if the pressure usuallj^ carried is 50 pounds per square inch (many carry 100 
to 150 pounds), there is constantly being exerted upon each inch in length 
of the shell a bursting pressure of 7,500 pounds, and if the boiler is 15 feet, 
or 180 inches long, the entire pressure, w^hich is tending to rend the boiler 
asunder, amounts to the enormous total of 1,350,000 pounds, or, if the 
boiler is carrying 100 pounds per square inch, 2,700,000 pounds. 

Boilers. 

The grate surface of a boiler is proportional to the heating surface, 
usually being from 3^5 to 3^5 of the latter. 



DIAMETER OF BOILER 


GRATE. 


IN INCHES. 


WIDTH. 


LENGTH. 


36 


45 






48 


38 


47 






48 


40 


49 






48 


42 


51 






52 


44 


53 






52 


46 


55 






52 


48 


57 






52 


50 


59 






60 


52 


61 






60 


54 


63 






60 


56 


65 






72 


58 


67 






72 


60 


69 






72 



56 



To Find the Diameter of Feed Pipe for a Boiler. 

Rule: Find the diameter of pump plunger in inches and divide it by 20. 
Then multiply this quotient by the square root of the mean velocity in feet 
per minute of the plunger, and the product will be the required diameter of 
feed pipe. 

In small pumps the velocity of flow through feed pipe should not exceed 
400 feet per minute, and for large pumps 500 feet per minute. 

Table Showing the Equivalent Evaporation from Feed at ioo° 
into Steam of 70 lbs. Pressure for Various Other Pressures, 
and Temperatures of Feed- Water. 



i 


PRESSURE IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH ABOVE THE ATMOSPHERE. 





10 


20 


30 


40 


45 


50 


60 


70 


75 


80 


90 


100 


120 


140 


160 


32 


1.038 


1.04 


1.046 


1.05 


1.053 


1.055 


1.056 


1.059 


1.061 


1.063 


1.064 


1.066 


1.068 


1.071 


1.074 


ism 


40 


1.025 


1.033 


1.039 


1.043 


1.046 


1.048 


1.05 


1.052 


1.054 


1 055 


1.056 


1.058 


1.06 


1.064 


1.067 


1.069 


50 


1.016 


1.024 


1.03 


1.034 


1.037 


1.039 


1.04 


1.043 


1.045 


1.046 


1.047 


1.049 


1.051 


1.055 


1.057 


1.06 


60 


1.008 


1.015 


1.02 


1.025 


1.028 


1.031 


1.031 


l.Oi^ 


1.036 


1.037 


1.038 


1.04 


1.042 


1.046 


1.048 


1.051 


70 


.999 


1.006 


1.012 


1.016 


1.019 


1.02 


1.022 


1.025 


1.027 


1.028 


1.029 


1.031 


1.0.33 


1.036 


1.039 


1.042 


80 


.989 


.997 


1.003 


1.007 


l.(X)9 


1.01 


1.013 


1.016 


1.018 


1.019 


1.02 


1.022 


1.024 


1.027 


1.031 


1.033 


90 


.98 


.988 


.993 


.998 


1.001 


1.003 


1.004 


1.007 


1.009 


1.01 


1.011 


1.013 


1.015 


1.018 


1.021 


1 024 


100 


.971 


.979 


.984 


.989 


.992 


.994 


.995 


.998 


1. 


1.001 


1.002 


1.004 


1.006 


1.009 


1.012 


1 015 


110 


.962 


.97 


.975 


.979 


.983 


.9ft5 


.986 


.989 


.991 


.992 


.993 


.995 


.997 


1. 


1.003 


1,006 


120 


.954 


.961 


.966 


.97 


.974 


.976 


.977 


.98 


982 


.983 


.984 


.986 


.988 


.991 


.994 


997 


130 


.944 


.952 


.957 


.961 


.965 


.966 


.968 


.971 


.973 


.974 


.975 


.977 


.979 


.982 


.985 


988 


140 


.935 


.943 


.948 


.952 


.956 


.957 


.959 


.962 


.964 


.965 


.966 


.968 


.97 


.973 


.976 


.979 


150 


.926 


.934 


.939 


.943 


.947 


.948 


.950 


.952 


.955 


.956 


.957 


.959 


.961 


.964 


.967 


.97 


160 


.917 


.925 


.93 


.934 


.938 


.939 


.941 


.943 


.946 


.947 


.948 


.95 


.952 


.955 


.958 


.961 


170 


.908 


.916 


.921 


.925 


.929 


.93 


.932 


.934 


.937 


.938 


.939 


.941 


.943 


.946 


.949 


.952 


180 


.9 


.907 


.912 


.916 


.919 


.921 


.923 


.925 


.928 


.929 


.93 


.932 


.934 


.937 


.94 


.943 


190 


.89 


.898 


.903 


.907 


.91 


.912 


.913 


.916 


.919 


.92 


.921 


.923 


.924 


.928 


.931 


.934 


200 


.881 


.888 


.894 


.898 


.901 


.903 


.904 


.907 


.909 


.911 


.912 


.914 


.915 


.919 


.922 


.924 


210 


.872 


.88 


.885 


.889 


.892 


.894 


.895 


.898 


.9 


.901 


.902 


.904 


.905 


.909 


.913 


.915 


212 


.87 


.877 


.883 


.887 


.892 


.892 


.893 


.896 


.898 


.899 


.901 


.903 


.904 


.908 


.911 


.914 



Suppose we have a boiler which evaporates 2,400 lbs. of water in one 
hour from feed at 70° into steam at 80 lbs. per square inch, what is the 
equivalent evaporation from 100° into steam of 70 lbs. ? 

Looking in the first column under "Temperature of the Feed " we find 
70 ; following along the horizontal line from this point until we reach the 
line of pressures having 80 at the top we find 1,029; multiplying this by 
2,400 we have 2,469.6 for the equivalent evaporation from 100° at 70 lbs,, 
and the nominal horse-power of the boiler would be, by the Centennial 
Committee's Standard, 2,469.6-f-30=82.3 horse-power, and similarly in 
any other case. 

Boiler Braces. 

No more than 6,000 lbs. per square inch of section of brace is allowed 
by the laws of the United States. Required the strain on a sheet 40x20 
inches; boiler pressure 60 lbs. per square inch. Number of braces, 6. Sec- 
tion of each brace, 1 square inch (or IVs^^ full, round iron). 
40 X 20 = 800 square inches. 
800 X 60 =: 48000 lbs. pressure. 

48000 

— - — = 8000 lbs. pressure, 

to each brace, or more than allowed by law. 



BOILERS— GRATE BARS. 



57 



"Porcupine " Boilers. 

U. S. Board of Supervising Inspectors' rule for determining the steam 
pressure allowable upon the " Hazelton " or "Porcupine" type of boilers. 
Tube sheet to be of any thickness required. 

Multiply the vertical distance between the horizontal rows of tubes in. 
inches by one-half the diameter of shell of boiler in inches, which gives the 
area upon which the pressure is exerted to break a diagonal ligament; then 
find the sectional area of the ligament at its smallest part and multiply by 
one-sixth of the tensile strength of the material; this result divided by the 
area upon which the strain is exerted gives the working-pressure per square 
inch. 
Example: 

Diameter of boiler, 30 inches. Plates, %-inch thick. Tensile strength, 
60,000 pounds. Width of ligament, 1.219 inches. Distance of vertical 
centers, 3.6875 inches. 

1.219 X .625 = .761875 

.761875 X 10,000 = 7,618.75 

3.6875 X 15 = 55.3125 

ruj.a.,^ ^ 137.74 = as the pressure allowed. 
55 3125 ^'^'•'* ^ 



Answer. 



Table of the Strongest Form and Proportion of Riveted Joints. 



THICKNEi^S OF 


DIAMETER OF 


LENGTH OF 


PITCH. 


LAP. 


PLATE. 


RIVET. 


RIVET. 






j^g inch. 


% inch. 


0.85 inch. 


1.14 inch. 


1.14 inch. 


V4 " 


V2 " 


1.12 " 


1.5 " 


1.5 " 


h " 


% " 


1.39 " 


1.55 " 


1.76 " 


% " 


% " 


1.68 '* 


1.87 * 


2.1 •' 


V2 " 


% " 


2.25 " 


2.00 •' 


2.25 " 


% " 


1 " 


2.82 " 


2.5 " 


2.82 " 


% " 


IVs " 


3.37 " 


3.0 " 


3 37 " 



GRATB BARS. 

For burning bituminous coal the air spaces between grate bars should 
be % of an inch. 

For wood, from % to 1 inch. 

For saw^dust, from j^g to H inch. 

The area of a chimney should be about 0.16 of the area of the fire grate. 

All grates should have an inclination of an inch to the foot of grate bar, 
sloping downward from fireMoor to bridge wall. 

The total amount of air opening through grate should not be less than 
one-quarter of total grate area. 

The height of a chimney or stack is measured from the top of the fur- 
nace grate. 

To Find the Consumption of Coal Per Horse Power Per Hour. 

Rule: Dividethe consumption of coal per day in pounds by the number 
of hours in the day. This will give the consumption of coal per hour. Next, 



58 GRATE BARS — BEAMS. 



divide the number of pounds of coal consumed per hour by the indicated 
horse power of the engine. The result will be the number of pounds of coal 
per hour for each indicated horse power. 

Ver^^ small engines will require from 8 to 10 pounds of coal per horse 
power per hour; ordinary non-condensing engines from 3 to 5 pounds, and 
large condensing engines from I1/2 to 2 pounds per horse power per hour. 

Incrustation and Scale. 

The most common and important minerals in boiler scale are car- 
bonate of lime, sulphate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. 

It is estimated that the presence of ^q inch of scale causes a loss of 13 
per cent, of fuel, i/4 inch 38 per cent., and I/2 inch 60 per cent. 

Boiler Scale Solvent. 

Take 50 pounds of sal soda and 35 pounds of japonica. Put these in- 
gredients in a 50 gallon barrel, half fill with water and bring to a boil. 
Then fill up with water and allow to settle. Use one quart per 10 hours for 
a 40-horse power boiler, pumped in with feed water. 

Another. 

Take 40 lbs. extract of hemlock, 4 lbs. soda ash, 5 lbs. brown sugar. 
Dissolve the above in 10 gallons of water. Dose: From 1 to 1^^ gallons 
per week, according to size of boiler and thickness of scale. 



WEIGHT AND DIM:eNSIONS OF I Bi^AMS. 

3-INCH I BBAM, No. 13, I^IGHT, 7 l^BS. PEJR FOOT. 

Depth, S'\ Width of Flanges, 2.32^^. Thickness of Web, 0.19^^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

4-INCH I BBAM, No. i«, I^IGHT, 8 I^BS. F^R FOOT. 

Depth, 4^^ Width of Flanges, 2.48^^ Thickness of Web, 0.23^^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

4-INCH I BFAM, No. I3, HFAVY, 10 I^BS. PFR FOOT. 

Depth, 4^'. Width of Flanges, 2.63^^. Thickness of Web, 0.38^'. 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per squar^nch. 

5-INCH I BFAM, No. 11, I^IGHT, 10 I^BS, PBR FOOT. 

Depth, 5''. Width of Flanges, 2.73^^ Thickness of Web, 0.225^^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

5-INCH I BFAM, No. 11, HFAVY, 13 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 5'\ Width of Flanges, 2.91''. Thickness of Web, 0.405'^ 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 



BEAMS. 59 

6-INCH I BBAM, No. lo, I^IGHT, i3Vi I/BS. PiBR FOOT. 

Depth, 6", Width of Flanges, 3.24-'^ Thickness of Web, 0.24'^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

6-INCH I BSAM, No. lO, HEAVY, i8 I/BS. PiRR FOOT. 

Depth, 6". Width of Flanges, 3.46". Thickness of Web, 0.46''. Max- 
imum fiber strain := 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

7-INCH I BFAM, No. 9, I^IGHT, 18 I^BS. P:i^R FOOT. 

Depth, 7". Width of Flanges, 3.61'^ Thickness of Web, 0.23^'. Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

7-INCH I BBAM, No. 8, HIJAVY, 25 I^BS. PFK. FOOT. 

Depth, 7'^ Widthof Flanges, 3.91" Thickness of Web, 0.53^^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

8-INCH I BFAM, No. 8, I^IGHT, 23 I^BS. PFR FOOT. 

Depth, 8^^ Width of Flanges, 3.81". Thickness of Web, 0.31'^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

8-INCH I BFAM, No. 8, HFAVY, 35 I^BS. PFR FOOT. 

Depth, 8^'. Width of Flanges, 4.29. Thickness of Web, 79^'. Max- 
imum of fiber strain ^= 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

9-INCH I BEAM, No. 6, I^IGHT, 23 2 I/BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 9''. W^idth of Flanges, 4.01^'. Thickness of Web, 0.26'^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

9-INCH I BEAM, No. 6, HEAVY, 33 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, Q'\ Width of Flanges, 4.33''. Thickness of Web, 58.^^ Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

lO-INCH I BEAM, No. 5, IvIGHT, 30 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 10". Width of Flanges, 4.32". Thickness of Web. 0-32" Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12 000 lbs. per square inch. 

lo-INCH I BEAM, No. 5, HEAVY, 45 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 10". Width of Flanges, 4. 77" . Thickness of Web, 77." Max- 
imum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

10/2-INCH I BEAM, No. 4, I/IG»:T, 31 V2 I/BS. PER FOOT. 
Depth. 101/2^^ Width of Flanges, 4.54", Thickness of Web, 0.41". 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

lo/o-INCH I BEAM, No. 4, HEAVY, 45 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 101/2". Width of Flanges. 4.92". Thickness of Web, 0.79^'. 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

la-INCH I BEAM, No. 3, I^IGHT, 42 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 12'^ Width of Flanges, 4.64". Tickness of Web, 0.51". 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 



60 



la-iNCH I be;am, no. 3, H:eAVY, 60 i^bs. per foot. 

Depth, 12''. Width of Flanges, 5. 09''. Thickness of Web. 0.96^'. 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

15-INCH I BEAM, No. I, I^IGHT, 50 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 15^'. Width of Flanges, 5.03'^ Thickness of Web, 0.47". 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

15-INCH I BEAM, No. I, HEAVY, 65 I^BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 15". Width of Flanges, 5.33'^. Thickness of Web, 0.77". 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

15-INCH I BEAM, No. 3, WGHT, 67 I.BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 15^^ Width of Flanges, 5.55'^ Thickness of Web, 0.67". 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

15-INCH I BEAM, No. a, HEAVY, 80 I,BS. PER FOOT. 

Depth, 15'^ Width of Flanges, 5.81'^ Thickness of Web, 0.93^'. 
Maximum fiber strain = 12,000 lbs. per square inch. 

To Find the Safe Load which a Horizontal Cast Iron Beam will Bear, the 
Beam being Fixed at one End, and the Load Suspended from the other. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the depth of beam in inches by the 
breadth in inches, and this product by the constant number 350, and divide 
the result b}^ the length of projecting beam in feet. Divide the quotient b\^ 
4, and subtract one-half the v^'eight of beam. 

For wrought iron beams use the constant number 375 and proceed as 
above. 

To Find the Safe Load for a Horizontal Cast Iron Beam Fixed at one End, 
and the Load Uniformly Distributed. 

Rule : Multiply the square of the depth of beam in inches by the 
breadth in inches and the product by the constant number 350, and divide 
the result by the length of projecting beam in feet. Divide this result by 2, 
and from the quotient subtract the whole weight of beam. 

For w^rought iron beams use the constant number 375, and proceed as 
above. 

To Find the Safe Load which a Cast Iron Beam of Uniform Rectangular 
Cross Section, Supported at both Ends, can Bear in the Center. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the depth of beam in inches by the 
breadth in inches, and this product by the constant number 350. Then di- 
vide the result bj^ the distance between the supports in feet. For wrought 
iron beams proceed as above, using the constant number 375 instead of 
350. The above rule applies to loads at rest. 

To Find the Safe Load for a Horizontal Cast Iron Beam, Loaded Uniformly 
Throughout, and Supported at Both Ends. 

Rule : Multiply the square of the depth of beam in inches bj^the breadth 
in inches, and this product by the constant number 350, and divide the re- 



BEAMS. 



61 



suit by the distance between supports in feet. Multiply this result by 2 and 
deduct the whole weight of the beam. 

For wrought iron beams use the constant number 375, and proceed as 
above. 



WOODEN b:i^ams. 

Safe load, uniformly distributed, for rectangular white or yellow pine 
beams one inch thick, allowing 1,200 lbs. per square inch fiber strain. 

To obtain the safe load for any thickness, multiply the safe load given 
in table by the thickness of beam. 

To obtain the required thickness for an3' load, divide by the safe load 
for 1 inch, given in table. 





DEPTH OF BEAM. 


c^.S 


6'' 

Lbs. 


7" 


8'' 


9'' 


10'' 


11'' 


12" 


13" 
Lbs. 


14" 
Lbs. 


15" 


16^^ 


Feet. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


5 


960 


1310 


1710 


2160 


2670 


3230 


3840 


4510 


5230 


6000 


6830 


6 


800 


1090 


1420 


1800 


2220 


2690 


3200 


3760 


4360 


5000 


5690 


7 


690 


930 


1220 


1540 


1900 


2300 


2740 


3220 


3730 


4290 


4880 


8 


600 


820 


1070 


1350 


1670 


2020 


2400 


2820 


3270 


3750 


4270 


9 


530 


730 


950 


1200 


1480 


1790 


2130 


2500 


2900 


3330 


3790 


10 


480 


650 


850 


1080 


1330 


1610 


1920: 2250 


2610 


3000 


341Q 


11 


440 


590 


780 


980 


1210 


1470 


1750 


2050 


2380 


2730 


3100 


12 


400 


540 


710 


900 


1110 


1340 


1600 


1880 


2180 


2500 


2840 


13 


370 


500 


660 


830 


1030 


1240 


1480 


1730 


2010 


2310 


2630 


14 


340 


470 


610 


770 


950 


1150 


1379 


1610 


1870 


2140 


2440 


15 


320 


440 


570 


720 


890 


1080 


1280 


1500 


1740 


2000 


2280 


16 


300 


410 


530 


680 


830 


1010 


1200 


1410 


1630 


1880 


2130 


17 


280 


380 


500 


640 


780 


950 


1130 


1330 


1540 


1760 


2010 


18 


270 


360 


470 


600 


740 


900 


1070 


1250 


1450 


1670 


1900 


19 


250 


340 


450 


570 


700 


850 


1010 


1190 


1380 


1580 


1800 


20 


240 


330 


430 


540 


670 


810 


960 


1130 


1310 


1500 


1710 


21 


230 


310 


410 


510 


630 


770 


910 


1070 


1240 


1430 


1630 


22 


220 


300 


390 


490 


610 


730 


870 


1020 


1190 


1360 


1550 


23 


210 


280 


370 


470 


580 


700 


830 


980 


1140 


1300 


1480 


24 


200 


270 


360 


450 


560 


670 


800 


940 


1090 


1250 


1420 


25 


190 


260 


340 


430 


530 


650 


770 


900 


1050 


1200 


1370 


26 


180 


250 


330 


420 


510 


620 


740 


870 


1010 


1150 


1310 


27 


180 


240 


320 


400 


500 


600 


710 


830 


970 


1110 


1260 


28 


170 


230 


300 


390 


480 


580 


690 


800 


930 


1070 


1220 


29 


170 


230 


290 


370| 


460 


560 


660 780i 


900 1030 


1180 



The strength of beams is in direct proportion to their thickness, in- 
versely as their length, and as the square of their depth, thus: A joist 4 
.nches thick is twice as strong as a 2 inch joist; if 12 feet in length, it has 
double the strength of one of 24 feet, while doubling the depth, as from 6 to 
12 inches, increases the strength four fold. In these comparisons all other 
elements of strength are assumed to be equal. 



62 



BEAMS. 



00 



lOC^XCr>lOTj<OJCOCD<MOC^C^cr)C^»>C500C^rHTf<Oa>THlOr^C5XO^iH 
C\JrHOO<MOOOlOCOCD(MOOr^'*t-T-iCDC^X^r^t-lOC<JOI>lOCO(M 
COXCM05THC£)C^O^t-lOTj<OOMri005a5XXt-l>J>CDCDCO(r)lOiqiOlO 

lO ^^ U:5 CO CO Csi d rH rH rH rH rH H rH rH d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d 



rHCCU>COC^a5T;J<iH(MTHI>Tj<J>OJI>r-lrH<X)<X)r-IX05C^OTj<T}<Tf<C£>C:5T}< 
rHOCOOiMCOT}^OTHCOCOCO'*t>OLOOiOiHXTj<rHOTCOT}<C^OXCDlO 
CC>XlOTj<t^OJ05t^lOTf((MrMOa505XXt^t^CDCDCOlOlOlOlOlOr}<Tf<'«^ 

codrflcoc^csiTH T-irHrHr-lrHTHddddddddddddddddd 



J>XOJT}*J>COt-t^Tf<^l>XCOXC^r*OOJt>J>C5C000505THl005lOr-i 
COCDTHCOTf^LOl^CDOt-COt^OCOXMOJlOTHXlCCOrHXCDlCCOrHOCT) 
t^X05C5COO:iCDTj<COTHOOC5X»>OCDCOC£)lOlOlOlO'*-<#'^T}<-^-^CO 

T-iiocooiojrHTHrHr-irHTHddddddddddddddddodo 



OOCOOO«>050THOa5COa5Tf<»>lCXCOCDOCOlOl01>OlOOt^lOOO 
OOCOOOCDOJlOrHOOCOCOrHCDOlXlOC^Otr-lOCOT-iOXt^lO'^CO 
OOCOlOOCD^OIrHOa5XI>t^CDCDlOlOlOlOT}<T}«-^Tf<Ti^COCOCOCOOO 

diococ^c^THr^rHrHrndddddddddddddddddddd 



C0THTHr-lTHOCO^O'*O<£)OOl0rHt^C^OOCVJl0OCDC0THOOO 
OOOOXOOlOCOTihCOO^OCOC^105CDTf<C^OXCOlOCOC^I,HOa>X 
TJ<(MXTHCiTj<C^OaiXJ>J>CDCCiLOlOTj<rJ<Tj*^'^COCOCOCOCOCOCOO<C^ 



X^C^C^rHrHHr-iOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOO 



Tj<CMlOXO5t:-O)XC^T^,HOiT}<CDC0'*XCOlOI>iHr-!OlO5Xt-t^XO5i-( 
T}^t-rHCOXlOa5CDt>a)COt^C005CDCOOXCD-^COTHOXI>CDU:i-^COCO 
0>Tj<COt-COr-jC5Xt--;DCDLOlO-*Tj<-^TJ^COCOCOCOCOCOC>JC^C^OJ^lCSJ01 

dcoc^rHr-irHoddddddddddddddddddddddd 



lOC^lOC0lOX-*C0lOOJr-(a5C0OJlOC^r-t<MCDr-(XCDlOTj<lOC£)Xr-ICD 
C^j^t^OOJCOOOOlCDrHCDCOOt^lOCOTHOXCDlO-^COOJrHOOai 
CDXX'^THOJXt-CDlOlO'^rjjTj^COCOCOCOOJC^CMOlCSJC^OliMOlOJTH 



^CHriTHXr-ilOlOTf<Tf*rJ<OOH>COXr-it-'rf<C^C^OlCOlO-Xr-(lOa> 
4iMXrHX-*COlOa5-*Ot>'*T-ia)l-^CDTtCOOJi-iOCnXJ>t:-CDlO 

^c^^^c»o^>(X)LO'*TJ^^cococO(^JC^cM(M<^^o^c^c^lr^HH^-tr^r^ 
^'csirHTHdddddddddddddddddddddddd 



rnr-I^THTHI>CDLOXOa:^i-lCOt^COOaia)0 01lOQO<MCDr-iCD 
OOWi0XCDXC^J>^OXCDT^01r-iOXt-b-CD»0'*^C000(M 
T^t^r^XaDUO^^COCOCOC^lC^C^C^C^C^rHr-jTHHTHrHHHrHrH 

coHr-idddddddddddddddddddddddd 



oocoioot-t-iMXCt^xc^ajt-cooaic^iooi-^aj-^ocD 

ioc^xcdlOt}<cococ<ic^c^^'-'^'~j'~J'~J^'~3'~;^^'^';'^. ^ 
ci-nddddddddddddddddddddoodo 



J> CO 05 lO C^J O) 
X X t^ «> !>• d 

oqooqo 
dddddddddddddooodddddd 



rHCDOXC^lOaSOJWr-rHCOlCaJ^O^lOC^XCOCOTHX^ 
^lO?-I>C^XlOCOCVrr-f005Xt~-t^CDCCiCOlOlOlOlO^^ 

rAddddddddddddddddddo o ooo 



?5rHOlOC^OXt-CDCDlOlO^^^COCOCOCOCOaDgg 

dddddddddddddddddddoooo 



XCJiC0aiCDcr>O»-Cr-lXl0C0r-(O05t^CDlCl0'^C0C0 
SSSSSS^COCOOJC^OlOlggggggggg 

ddddddddddddddddoddddo 



05 lo CO t:- -:f< 01 o d X t- d CD 10 lO lO ^ ;^ ^ ;^ fO : 

fo 5r^ M t-i ^ rH T^ O O O O O O O O O O O O O : 

ooooocoooooooqqqqqqq : 

ddddddddddddddddodoa : 



XVdS 



^c.c,^»»^cc»0^3c,33S5;«C50j.c.c,^g»r^-co»oj 



BEAMS — BRASS. 



63 



Example: What is the safe load for a beam having 30 feet span, and 
having a depth of 10 inches, and 8" thick? 

2000 X 0.231 = 462 lbs. the safe load for 1 inch thick. 
462 X 8 = 3,696 lbs. for 8'^ thick. Ans. 



Table Showing Weight in Pounds of Sheet and Bar Brass. 



Thickness 


Sheets 


Square 


Round 


Thickness 


Sheets 


Square 


Round 


or 


per 


Bars, 


Bars, 


or 


per 


Bars, 


Bars, 


Diameter 


Square 
Foot. 


1 Foot 


IFoot 


Diameter 


Square 


1 Foot 


1 Foot 


in Inches. 


Long. 
.015 


Long. 


in inches. 


Foot. 


Long. 


Long. 


i^e 


2 7 


.011 


li'e 


48.69 


4.08 


3.20 


Vs 


5.41 


.055 


.045 


Vg 


49.95 


4.55 


3.57 


h 


8.12 


.125 


.1 


1^6 


51.4 


5.08 


3.97 


M 


10.76 


.225 


.175 


1/4 


54.18 


5.65 


4.41 


1% 


13.48 


.350 


.275 


h 


56.85 


6.22 


4.86 


% 


16.25 


.51 


.395 


% 


59.55 


6.81 


5.35 


h 


19. 


.69 


.54 


h 


62.25 


7.45 


5.85 


1/2 


21.65 


.905 


.71 


1/2 


65. 


8.13 


6.37 


l^e 


24.3 


1.15 


.9 


r% 


67.75 


8.83 


6.92 


% 


27.12 


1.4 


1.1 


% 


70.35 


9.55 


7.48 


\h 


29.77 


1.72 


1.35 


n 


73. 


10.27 


8.05 


% 


32.46 


2.05 


1.66 


% 


75.86 


11. 


8.65 


\% 


35.18 


2.4 


1.85 


13 

16 


78.55 


11.82 


9.29 


Vs 


37.85 


2.75 


2.15 


% 


81.25 


12.68 


9.95 


\% 


40.55 


3.15 


2.48 


11 


84. 


13.5 


10.58 


1 


43.29 


3.65 


2.85 


2 


86.75 


14.35 


11.25 



Specific gravity, 8.218. Weight, per cubic foot, 513.6 lbs. 



To determine the presence of lead in tin vessels. Touch the metal v^ith 
nitric acid, and then heat until the acid evaporates. If there be lead in the 
metal stannic acid and nitrate of lead remain. Iodide of potassium is then 
appHed, forming yellow iodide of lead, while the stannic acid is white. The 
yellow stain indicates lead; the white, tin. 



Soldering liquid for brass. Into hydrochloric acid, place as much scrap- 
zinc as it will dissolve, still leaving a sponge of zinc. 

To solder cast or w^rought iron, add a little sal-ammoniac. 



German silver. Nickel, 3 parts; zinc, 33^ parts, and copper, 8 parts. 



64 



BOL'TS. 



Weight of loo Bolts With Square Heads and Nuts. 



LENGTH 






DIAMETER 


OF BOLT 


s. 






UNDER 
















HEAD. 


14 in. 


3/8 in. 


1/2 in. 
Lbs. 


%in. 


34 in. 


% in. 


lin. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. ■ 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


31/2 


9 


20 


32 








1^4 


3% 


9% 


21 


341/9 








11/2 


414 


10% 


22 


37 








1% 


4% 


11% 


23 


391/9 








2 


5 


121/2 


24 


42 


70 


130 


180 


214 


53/8 


131/8 


251/2 


441/2 


731/2 


1321/2 


185 


21/2 


534 


143/8 


27 


47 


77 


135 


190 


234 


61/8 


151/2 


281/2 


491/2 


8O1/2 


1371/2 


195 


3 


61/2 


I614 


30 


52 


84 


140 


200 


31/2 


71/8 


181/8 


33 


561/2 


90 


148 


210 


4 


734 


20 


36 


61 


96 


156 


220 


41/2 


83/8 


21% 


39 


651/2 


1011/2 


164 


230 


5 


9 


2314 


42 


70 


107 


172 


240 


51/2 


934 


24% 


45 


74 


1121/2 


180 


251 


6 


103/8 


261/2 


48 


78 


118 


188 


262 


7 


1134 


291/2 


54 


86 


130 


204 


284 


8 


i3y8 


33 


60 


94 


143 


220 


306 


9 


141/2 


36 


66 


102 


156 


236 


328 


10 


16 


40 


72 


110 


170 


252 


350 


11 


1714 


43 


78 


118 


185 


268 


372 


12 


18% 


46 


84 


127 


200 


284 


393 



Weight of 100 Bolts With Hexagon Heads and Nuts. 



LENGTH 
UNDER 


DIAMETER OF BOLTS. 


HEAD. 


14 in. 


%in. 


1/2 in. 


% in. 


34 in. 


% in. 


lin. 


Inches. 
1 


Lbs. 

31/8 
31/2 

3% 

414 

4% 
5 

53/8 
534 
6% 
634 
73/8 
8 

8% 
93/8 
10 
11% 
1234 
14% 
15% 
16% 
I814 


Lbs. 

7% 
8% 
91/2 

103/8 
1114 

i2y4 

13% 

14 

15 

16% 
18% 

203/8 

22 

23% 

2514 

2814 

3134 

3434 

38% 

413/8 
4434 


Lbs. 

163/8 

173/8 

183/8 
193/8 

20% 
21% 
233/s 

24% 

263/8 

293/8 

323/8 

353/8 

383/8 

413/8 

443/8 

503/8 
563/8 
623/8 
683/8 

743/8 

803/8 


Lbs. 

2634 
2914 
3134 
3414 
3634 
3914 
4134 
4414 
4634 
5114 
5534 
6O14 
6434 
6834 
7234 
8O34 
8834 
9634 
10434 
112% 

i2iy2 


Lbs 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


114 








IV2 








134 








2 

214 

21/2 

2% 

3 

31/2 

4 

41/2 

5 

51/2 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 


58 

6I1/2 

65 

681/2 

72 

78 

84 

891/2 

95 
1001/2 
106 
118 
131 
144 
158 
173 
188 


115 

1171/2 

120 

1221/2 

125 

133 

141 

149 

157 

165 

173 

189 

205 

221 

237 

253 

269 


159 
164 
169 
174 
179 
189 
199 
209 
219 
230 
241 
263 
285 
297 
329 
351 
372 



BOLTS. 



65 



Weight of Rivets and Round Headed Bolts Without Nuts, 

Per loo. 

LENGTH FROM UNDER HEAD. ONE CUBIC FOOT WEIGHING 480 LBS. 



LENGTH 


%^' 


y^" 


%^^ 


%^^ ! 


%'^ 


V 


IVs'^ 


11/4'^ 


INCHES. 


DIAM. 


DIAM. 


DIAM. 


DIAM. \ 


DIAM. 


DIAM. 


DIAM. 


DIAM. 


IV4 


5.4 


12.6 


21.5 


28.7 


43.1 


65.3 


91.5 


123. 


IV2 


6.2 


13.9 


23.7 


31.8 1 


47.3 


70.7 


98.4 


133. 


1% 


6.9 


15.3 


25.8 


34.9 i 


51.4 


76.2 


105. 


142. 


2 


7.7 


16.6 


27.9 


37.9 


55.6 


81.6 


112. 


150. 


214 


8.5 


18.0 


30.0 


41.0 


59.8 


87.1 


119. 


159. 


21/2 


9.2 


19.4 


32.2 


44.1 


63.0 


92.5 


126. 


167. 


2?4 


10.0 


20.7 


34.3 


47.1 


68.1 


98.0 


133. 


176. 


3 


10.8 


22.1 


36.4 


50.2 


72.3 


103. 


140. 


184. 


3V4 


11.5 


23.5 


38.6 


53.3 


76.5 


109. 


147.- 


193. 


31/2 


12.3 


24.8 


40.7 


56.4 


80.7 


114. 


154. 


201. 


3% 


13.1 


26.2 


42.8 


59.4 


84.8 


120. 


161. 


210. 


4 


13.8 


27.5 


45.0 


62.5 


89.0 


125. 


167. 


218. 


41/4 


14.6 


28.9 


47.1 


65.6 


93.2 


131. 


174. 


227. 


41/2 


15.4 


30.3 


49.2 


68.6 


97.4 


136. 


181. 


236. 


4% 


16.2 


31.6 


51.4 


71.7 


102. 


142. 


188. 


244. 


5 


16.9 


33.0 


53.5 


74.8 


106. 


147. 


195. 


253. 


51/4 


17.7 


34.4 


55.6 


77.8 


110. 


153. 


202. 


261. 


5V2 


18.4 


35.7 


57.7 


80.9 


114. 


158. 


209. 


270. 


534 


19.2 


37.1 


59.9 


84.0 


118. 


163. 


216. 


278. 


6 


20.0 


38.5 


62.0 


87.0 


122. 


169. 


223. 


287. 


6V2 


21.5 


41.2 


66.3 


93.2 


131. 


180. 


236. 


304. 


7 


23.0 


43.9 


70.5 


99.3 


139. 


191. 


250. 


321. 


71/2 


24.6 


46.6 


74.8 


106. 


147. 


202. 


264. 


338. 


8 


26.1 


49.4 


79.0 


112. 


156. 


213. 


278. 


355. 


8V2 


27.6 


52.1 


83.3 


118. 


164. 


223. 


292. 


372. 


9 


29.2 


54.8 


87.6 


124. 


173. 


234. 


306. 


389. 


91/2 


30.7 


57.6 


91.8 


130. 


181. 


245. 


319. 


406. 


10 


32-2 


60.3 


96.1 


136. 


189. 


256. 


333. 


423. 


IOV2 


33.8 


63.0 


101. 


142. 


198. 


267. 


347. 


440. 


11 


35.3 


65.7 


105. 


148. 


206. 


278. 


361. 


457. 


11 1/2 


36.8 


68.5 


109. 


155. 


214. 


289. 


375. 


474. 


12 


38.4 


71.2 


113. 


161. 


223. 


300. 


388. 


491. 


Heads. 


1.8 


5.7 


109 


13.4 


22.2 


38.0 


57.0 


82.0 



66 



Weight and Strength of Iron Bolts. 



EKDS ENLARGED OR UPSET. 


ENDS NOT EN- 
LARGED. 


ENDS ENLARGED OR UPSET. 

1 


ENDS NOT EN- 
LARGED. 


O 




oS 


O 


H 


P3 . 


H 


o2 





•J 




II 




^3 


p? 

2 o 


is 


i 


P3 


WW 


li 


a 


^ 


w 


fi 


^ 


fi 


^ 


» 


fi 


■ ^ 


Ins. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 
2240 lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs, 


Tons 
2240 lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


l^ 


.0414 


.245 






1% 

1% 


8.10 


45.7 


2.14 


12.0 




.093 
.165 


.553 
-983 






8.69 
9.30 


49.0 
52.5 


2.22 
2.30 


12.9 


1 6 


"'".35 


"321 


13.8 


f\ 


.258 


1.53 


-43 


.452 


lit 


9.93 


56.0 


2.38 


14.7 


% 


,372 


2.21 


.50 


.654 


2 


10.6 


59.7 


2.45 


15.7 


/e 


.506 


3.00 


.58 


.897 


2V8 


12.0 


63.8 


2.59 


17-5 


^2 


.661 


3,93 


.66 


1.14 


234 


13 4 


71.6 


2.73 


19.5 


1^6 


.837 


4.97 


.73 


1.41 


23/8 


14.9 


79.7 


2.88 


21.6 


% 


1.03 


6.14 


.80 


1.67 


2V2 


16.5 


88.4 


3.02 


23.9 


H 


1.25 


7.42 


.88 


2.03 


2% 


18.2 


97.4 


3.16 


26.1 


% 


1.49 


8.83 


.96 


2.41 


2% 


20.0 


106.9 


3.30 


28.5 


B 


1.75 


10.4 


1.04 


2.81 


2% 


21.9 


116.8 


3.45 


31.1 


% 


2.03 


12.0 


1.12 


3.26 


3 


23.8 


127.2 


3.60 


33.9 


B 


2.33 


13.8 


1.20 


3.77 


31/4 


27.9 


141.0 


3.86 


39.1 


1 


2.65 


15.7 


1.27 


4.27 


31/2 


32.4 


163.6 


4.12 


44.4 


ii\ 


2.99 


16.8 


1.35 


4.77 


33/4 


37.2 


187.7 


4.41 


51.0 


IVs 


3.35 


18.9 


1.42 


5.28 


4 


42.3 


213.6 


4.70 


57.8 


1t\ 


3.73 


21.1 


1.49 


5.81 


41/4 


47.8 


227.0 


4.98 


65.2 


1V4 


4.13 


23.3 


1.55 


6.39 


41/2 


53.6 


254.5 


5.25 


72.9 


1t\ 


4.56 


25.7 


1.64 


7.04 


43/4 


59.7 


283.5 


5.53 


80.5 


1% 


5.00 


28.2 


1.72 


7.74 


5 


66.1 


314.2 


5.80 


88.1 


1/e 


5.47 


30.8 


1.80 


8.48 


51/4 


72.9 


324.7 


6.08 


97.0 


iy2 


5.95 


33.6 


1.87 


9.20 


5V2 


80.0 


356.4 


6.36 


106. 


1^- 


6.46 


36.4 


1.94 


9.88 


53/4 


87.5 


389.5 


6.63 


116. 


1% 


6.99 


39.4 


2.00 


10.6 


6 


95.2 


424.1 


6.90 


126. 


IH- 


7.53 


42.5 


2.07 


11.3 













For square bars increase the breaking strains % part. 

A long upset rod is no stronger than one not upset, against slowly ap- 
plied loads or strains. Therefore in such cases the column of greatest diam- 
eter in the table should be used. 



BOLTS— BELTS. 



67 



A System of Bolts and Nuts, as Recommended by the Frank- 
lin Institute, of Philadelphia, December 15, 1364. 



DIAMETER OF 
BOLT. 


NUMBER OF 

THREADS PER 

INCH. 


DIAMETER OP 
HOLE IN NUT. 


DIAMETER OF 
BOLT. 


NUMBER OF 

THREADS PER 

INCH. 


DIAMETER OF 
HOLE IN NUT. 


1/4 


20 


.185 


2 


41/2 


1.712 


i\ 


18 


.240 


21/4 


41/2 


1.962 


% 


16 


.294 


21/2 


4 


2.175 


i\ 


14 


.344 


23/4 


4 


2.425 


V2 


13 


.400 


3 


31/2 


2.628 


i\ 


12 


.454 


31/4 


31/2 


2.878 


% 


11 


.507 


31/2 


314 


3 100 


% 


10 


.620 


s% 


3 


3.317 


% 


9 


.731 


4 


3 


3.566 


1 


8 


.837 


41/4 


2% 


3.825 


1% 


7 


.940 


41/2 


23/4 


4.027 


11/4 


7 


1.065 


43/4 


2% 


4.255 


1% 


6 


1.160 


5 


2V2 


4.480 


IV2 


6 


1.284 


51/4 


21/2 


4.730 


1% 


5V2 


1.389 


51/2 


23/8 


5.053 


1% 


5 


1.490 


534 


23/8 


5.203 


1% 


5 


1.615 


6 


214 


5.423 



Table of Horse Power which May be Transmitted by Open 

Single Belts to Pulleys Running 100 Revolutions per 

Minute. The Diameters of the Driving and 

Driven Pulleys Being i^qual. 

THE HORSE POWER OF DOUBLE BELTS IS 10.7 OF THAT GIVEN IN THE T:i.BLi3;. 



DIAM. 






WIDTH OF BELT IN INCHES. 






PULLEY. 


2 


21/2 


3 


31/2 


4 


4V2 


5 


6 


INCHES. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H.P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


6 


.44 


.54 


.65 


.76 


.87 


.98 


1.09 


1.31 


61/2 


.47 


.59 


.71 


.83 


.95 


1.07 


1.19 


1.42 


7 


.51 


.64 


.76 


.89 


1.01 


1.14 


1.27 


1.53 


7^2 


.55 


.68 


.82 


.95 


1.09 


1.23 


1.36 


1.64 


8 


.58 


.73 


.87 


1.02 


1.16 


1.31 


1.45 


1.75 


8^2 


.62 


.77 


.93 


1.08 


1.24 


1.39 


1.55 


1.86 


9 


.65 


.82 


.98 


1.15 


1.31 


1.48 


1.64 


1.97 


9V2 


.69 


.86 


1.04 


1.21 


1.39 


1.56 


1.74 


2.08 


10 


.73 


.91 


1.09 


1.27 


1.45 


1.63 


1.81 


2.18 


11 


.8 


1. 


1.2 


1.4 


1.6 


1.8 


2. 


2.4 


12 


.87 


1.09 


1.31 


1.53 


1.75 


1.97 


2.18 


2.62 


13 


.95 


1.18 


1.42 


1.65 


1.89 


2.12 


2.36 


2.83 


14 


1.02 


1.27 


1.52 


1.77 


2.02 


2.27 


2.53 


3.05 


15 


1.09 


1.36 


1.64 


1.91 


2.19 


2.46 


2.73 


3.29 


16 


1.16 


1.45 


1.74 


2.03 


2.32 


2.61 


2.91 


3.48 


17 


1.24 


1.55 


1.85 


2.16 


2.47 


2.78 


3.09 


3.70 


18 


1.31 


1.64 


1.96 


2.29 


2.62 


2.95 


3.27 


3.92 


19 


1.39 


1.73 


2.07 


2.42 


2.76 


3.11 


3.45 


4.14 


20 


1.45 


1.82 


2.18 


2.55 


2.91 


3.27 


3.64 


4.36 


21 


l.v52 


1.91 


2.29 


2.67 


3.05 


3.44 


3.82 


4.58 


22 


1.66 


2. 


2.4 


2.8 


3.2 


3.6 


4. 


4.8 


23 


1.67 


2.09 


2.51 


2.93 


3.35 


3.75 


4.18 


5.02 



68 



BELTS. 



DIAM. 






WIDTH OF BELT IN INCHES. 






PULLEY. 


4 


5 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


INCHES. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


24 


3.5 


4.4 


5.2 


7. 


8.7 


10.5 


12.2 


14. 


25 


3.6 


4.5 


5.5 


7.3 


9.1 


10.9 


12.7 


14.5 


26 


3.8 


4.7 


5.7 


7.6 


9.5 


11.3 


13.2 


15.1 


27 


3.9 


4.9 


5.9 


7.8 


9.8 


11.8 


13.7 


15.6 


28 


4.1 


5.1 


6.1 


8.1 


10.2 


12.2 


14.3 


16.3 


29 


4.2 


5.3 


6.3 


8.4 


10.5 


12.6 


14.8 


16.9 


30 


4.4 


5.4 


6.6 


8.7 


10.9 


13.1 


15.3 


17.4 


31 


4.5 


5.6 


6.8 


9. 


11.3 


13.5 


15.8 


18. 


32 


4.7 


5.8 


7. 


9.3 


11.6 


14. 


16.3 


18.6 


33 


4.8 


6. 


7.2 


9.6 


12. 


14.4 


16.8 


19.2 


34 


4.9 


62 


7.4 


9.9 


12.4 


14.8 


17.3 


19.8 


35 


5.1 


6.4 


7.6 


10.2 


12.7 


15.3 


17.9 


20.4 


36 


5.2 


6.5 


7.8 


10.5 


13.1 


15.7 


18.3 


20.9 


37 


5.4 


6.7 


8.1 


10.8 


13.5 


16.2 


18.9 


21.5 


38 


5.5 


6.9 


8.3 


11. 


13.8 


16.6 


19.3 


22.1 


39 


5.7 


7.1 


8.5 


11.3 


14.2 


17. 


19.9 


22.7 


40 


5.8 


7.3 


8.7 


11.6 


14.6 


17.5 


20.4 


23.3 


42 


6.1 


7.6 


9.2 


12.2 


15.3 


18.2 


21.4 


24.3 


44 


6.4 


8. 


9.6 


12.8 


16 


19.2 


22.4 


25.6 


46 


6.7 


8.4 


10. 


13.4 


16. 


20.1 


23.4 


26.8 


48 


7. 


8.8 


10.4 


14. 


17.4 


21. 


24.4 


28. 


50 


7.2 


9. 


10.9 


14.6 


18.2 


21.8 


25.4 


29. 


54 


7.8 


9.8 


11.8 


15.6 


19.6 


23.6 


26.4 


31.2 


60 


8.8 


10.8 


13.1 


17.4 


21.8 


26.2 


30.6 


34.8 



DIAM. 


WIDTH OF BELT IN INCHES. 


PULLEY. 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


INCHES. 


H.P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


24 


16 


17 


19 


21 


23 


24 


26 


28 


30 


19 


22 


24 


26 


28 


31 


33 


35 


36 


24 


26 


29 


31 


34 


37 


39 


42 


38 


25 


28 


30 


33 


36 


39 


41 


44 


40 


26 


29 


32 


35 


38 


41 


44 


47 


42 


28 


31 


34 


36 


40 


43 


46 


49 


44 


29 


32 


35 


38 


42 


45 


48 


51 


48 


31 


35 


38 


42 


45 


49 


52 


56 


50 


33 


36 


40 


44 


47 


51 


54 


58 


54 


35 


39 


43 


47 


50 


53 


58 


62 


60 


39 


44 


48 


52 


57 


61 


65 


70 


66 


43 


48 


53 


58 


62 


67 


72 


77 


72 


47 


52 


58 


63 


68 


73 


78 


84 


78 


50 


57 


62 


68 


74 


80 


85 


91 


84 


55 


61 


67 


73 


79 


86 


91 


97 


96 


63 


70 


76 


84 


90 


98 


104 


112 


120 


78 


88 


96 


104 


114 


122 


130 


140 


144 


94 


104 


116 


126 


136 


146 


156 


168 



BELTS. 



69 



DIAM. OP 

PULLET IN 

INCHES. 



REVOLUTIONS OF THE PULLEY PER MINUTE. 



50 60 70 80 



90 100 123 150 175 200 250 300 



HORSE POWER TRANSMITTED BY A SINGLE BELT ONE INCH WIDE. 



12 


.19 


.23 


.27 


.31 


.35 


.39 


.49 


.59 


.69 


.79 


.98 


1.18 


14 


.23 


.27 


.32 


.36 


.41 


.46 


.57 


.68 


.80 


.92 


1 14 


1.37 


16 


.26 


.31 


.37 


.42 


.47 


.53 


.65 


.79 


.92 


1.04 


1,30 


1.57 


18 


.29 


.36 


.41 


.47 


.53 


.59 


.74 


.88 


1.03 


1.18 


1.47 


1.76 


20 


.33 


.39 


.46 


.52 


.59 


.65 


.82 


.98 


1.14 


1.30 


1.63 


1.96 


24 


.39 


.47 


.55 


.63 


.71 


.79 


.97 


1.18 


1.38 


1.57 


1.98 


2.35 


28 


.46 


.55 


.64 


.73 


.82 


.91 


1.15 


1.37 


1.60 


1.83 


2.28 


2 75 


32 


.52 


.63 


.73 


.84 


.94 


1.05 


1.31 


1.57 


1.83 


2.10 


2.62 


3.15 


36 


.09 


.71 


.82 


.94 


1.06 


1.18 


1.47 


1.76 


2.06 


2.36 


2.95 


3 54 


40 


.60 


.79 


.92 


1.05 


1.18 


1.31 


1.63 


1.96 


2.30 


262 


3.28 


3.94 


44 


.72 


.86 


1.00 


1.15 


1.30 


1.44 


1.80 


2.16 


2.52 


2 88 


3.60 


4.30 


48 


.78 


.94 


1.10 


1.26 


1.42 


1.57 


1.96 


2.35 


2.75 


3.15 


3.94 


4.72 


54 


.88 


1.06 


1.24 


1.42 


1.59 


1.77 


2.21 


2.66 


3.10 


3.54 


4.43 


5.30 


60 


.98 


1.18 


1.37 


1.56 


1.76 


1.96 


2.45 


2.94 


3.43 


3 93 


4.90 


5.89 


66 


1.08 


1.30 


1.51 


1.73 


1.94 


2.16 


2.70 


3.24 


3.78 


4,30 


5.40 


6.49 


72 


1.18 


1.41 


1.64 


1.88 


2.12 


2.35 


2.95 


3.53 


4,12 


4.70 


5.88 


7.05 


78 


1.28 


1.53 


1.78 


2.04 


2.30 


2.56 


3.20:' 3.83 


4.48 


5.11 


6.40 


r 68 


84 


1.38 


1.65 


1.92 


2.20 


2.48 


2.75 


3.44 4.13 


4.81 


5.51 


6.88 


8 25 


90 


1.4V 


1.77 


2.07 


2.36 


2.66 


2.95 


3.68 4.42 


5.17 


5.90 


7.38 


8 85 


96 


1.58 


1.89 


2.21 


2.53 


2.84 


3.15 


3.93! 4.73 


5.52 


6.32 


7.90 


9.45 



TO FIND Tnn WEIGHT OF A HOI^I^OW CAST IRON BAI.I,. 

Multiply the difference of the cube of the outer and inner diameter in 
inches by .1365. The result will be the weight in pounds avoirdupois ap- 
proximately. 



Common lead glass melted makes a good bath in which to heat small 
articles that are to be hardened. 



The momentum of a moving body is its mass multiplied into its velo- 
city, while the vis viva is one-half the mass multiplied into the square of 
the velocity. 

Momentum is a mere term employed in certain mathematical processes 
with no corresponding quantity in nature, but vis viva, or "live strength," 
IS the actual force exerted by any moving body— the sum of the resistance 
required to bring a body to a state of rest. 



Do not place a tightening pulley on the load line or pulling side of a 
belt. Place it so that it will bear against the slack side. 



70 



BELTS. 



o 




> 




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^ 




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Q 




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y-t 


bo 


cd 


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rr 


ti 


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bo 


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l, 


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ii 


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to 


0) 


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> 


m 


u 


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n 


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•tH 


03 


(« 


bfl 


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P 


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^ 


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s 


to 
u 


to 


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;? 


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^ 




a 





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M 
o 

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p 


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lO 1-1 ?o CO 05 T}< to o» Qo ■<* OS U5 '^ t- eo eo eo 00 ©»w 


is: 




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(N 


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1 


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to 




(?}iCt-OS^eOtOOO <NT»<tDO0^C0u^t-C*«3 rtOSOO^ 

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eo CO eo eo Tjl Tj; i,*; ,t ■*" ^' ■«*•■ in o' in in m" in to to to t- 1^ t>' ac 


s 


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Oh 


o 


^^^^^^^^n?^^^^'cZ^^^^T^^2Z2 


o 

K 
O 

1 


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^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ,4 ^ oi ai oioioico ed eo eo eo rr tj.* tji' •^ in 


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,-H r-i ,4 -h' ,4 ,-; rt th ^ ocj oi !N 04 c<j oi eo eo eo eo' eo' -<# •<* 


^ 

■* 


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SS^SJeS^^SSooSJ^SJ^S^S^^SJ^Jto^ 
• ^ ^- ^ ^- ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ (jj (jj* e* ©i oj (m' eo eo eo eo 00 


TtH 


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s 


■ • ,-; ^' ^" ^ ^ ^ ^ r^ ^ r-' oj C4 ai ai aiaioinecci 




Ph' 
X 


•^^„^^^^^^^ciaiaiaiaiaiaioi 


cc 


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r- ^' ^ r^" ^' ^" ^ r-; T-; ^ oi si e< ai oi 




Ph' 

si 


^^r-ir^^^^r^^r^^aiai 


! 


Ph' 

w 


^_^^^^,^^^^ooM^^^.^.^^^'^^^^ 


o 
B 

0? 


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^ 


1 

o 

a 


:^ :^ :^ :^ 

totoi-t-ooooososo^ojeo-^iotot-oooso-^ojeo 



To Find the Power a Belt Will Transmit. 

When the pulleys differ in size, the larger of the two is lost sight of, and 
the small pulle^v onh^ must be considered. 

The number of degrees of belt contact on the small pulley must be got 
at as nearly as possible. 

For 180 degrees useful effect 1.00 

" 1571 " " " 92 

" 135 * " " 84 

" 1121 " " " 76 

90 " " " 64 

Rule : Divide the speed of the belt in feet per minute by 800, multiply 
the quotient b\^ the width of belt in inches and by 1.00 when the arc of con- 
tact is 180 degrees, and so on for other degrees of contact. 

Driving Power of Oak Tanned I^eather Belts. 

WIDTH OF BELTS 
TRAVELING 750 FEET 

PER MINUTE. HORSE-POWER. 

1 inch 1. 

2 " 2.142 

3 " 3.480 

4 " 5.028 

5 " 6.788 

G " 8.726 

7 " 10.953 

8 " 13.360 

9 " 15.982 

10 " 18.825 

11 " 21.882 

12 " 25.158 



72 



BELTING— BALLS. 



Width and Velocity of Belting. 





H 


>^ 


K Z 




» 












P4 


w 


W " 






WIDTH OF 


BELT. 






2 S 


O D . 


"g 














w 










. 


o 


> 5 


ft <^ 

r1 K 


P ^ tr> 


i 




Cfl 




">< 


i-j 


ft 


^ § 


"-Jo 


ft Q 


•j» 




C^ .; 


t/i ' 


< • 


K 


O 


1^ 


lAME'J 
SMAL 
IN IN 


W '-' ^ 


o 




pq S 
W « 




w w 


Q 

«5j 


W 


> 


Q 


P3 


^ 


g 


^ 


z 


« 


M 


375 


5,600 


60 


98 


Double 


24 


22 


34 


31| 


27 


250 


3,080 


84 


58 


4-ply 


48 


50 


28 


28 


23 


220 


2,451 


42 


135 


Single 


22 


98 


31 


84 


70 


175 


3,179 


72 


93 


Double 


19^ 


15| 


25 


26 


22 


175 


3.629 


115| 


55 


" 


29 


15 


22 


23 


20 


130 


2,117 


70 


113 


a 


18 


18 


22 


29 


24| 


125 


3,490 


84 


82 


11 


14| 


8 


17 


17 


14 1 


90 


2,860 


60 


87 


" 


12 


10 


15 


15 


12 i 


77 


2,268 


60 


77 


" 


14| 


12 


12 


16 


13i- 


45 


2,000 


48 


37 


Single 


20 


21 


15 


21 


18 


49 


2,111 


72 


24 




14 


21 


18 


21 


18 1 


43 


1,800 


60 


44 


" 


18 


20 


14 


23 


19" 


41 


1,809 


60 


42 


'< 


17J 


12 


16 


21 


18 


40 


2,000 


72 


37 


" 


8 


14 


13 


19 


16 


18 


850 


22 


116 


Double 


6 


19 


8 


10 


8.^ 


8 


942 


30 


40 


Single 


7 1 


12 


8 


8 


7 



The average breaking strain of a leather belt is 3,200 lbs. per square 
men of cross section. 

A very good quality of leather belt will sustain a little more than this 
In use on pulleys, belts should not be subjected to a greater strain than ^\ 
of their tensile strength, or 290 lbs. per square inch of cross section. This 
will be 55 lbs. average strain for every inch in width of single belt i=V of an 
inch thick. ' s ig 









Weight of Balls. 










DIAM.IN 


CAST 


CAST 


CAST 


CAST 


DIAM. IN 


CAST 


CAST 


CAST 


CAST 


INCPIES 


LEAD. 


COPPER 


BRASS. 


IRON. 

Lbs 


INCHES. 


LEAD. 

Lbs. 
30.1 


COPPER. 

Lbs. 
24.1 


BRASS. 


IRON. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 
21.5 


Lbs. 
19.8 


h 


.026 


.021 


.019 


.017 


5.^ 


f 


.088 


.070 


.063 


.058 


1 


34.7 


27.7 


24.7 


22.7 


1. 


.209 


.167 


.148 


.136 


1 


39.6 


31.7 


28.3 


25.9 


k 


.408 


.325 


.290 


.266 


6. 


45.0 


36.0 


32.0 


29.4 


\ 


.705 


.562 


.501 


.460 


\ 


57.2 


45.8 


40.8 


37 4 


1 


1.12 


.893 


.795 


.731 


7. 


71.5 


57.2 


50.9 


46-8 


2. 


1.67 


1.33 


1.19 


1.07 


\ 


88. 


70.3 


62.6 


57.5 


\ 


2.38 


1.90 


1.69 


1.55 


8. 


106. 


85.3 


76.0 


69.8 


\ 


3.25 


2.60 


2.32 


2.13 


\ 


127. 


102. 


91.2 


83.7 


\ 


4.34 


3.47 


3.09 


2.83 


9. 


151. 


121. 


108. 


99.4 


3. 


5.63 


4.50 


4.01 


3.68 


\ 


178. 


143. 


127. 


117. 


\ 


7.15 


5.72 


5.10 


4.68 


10. 


208. 


167. 


148. 


136. 


2 


8.94 


7.14 


6.36 


5.85 


1 


241. 


193. 


172. 


158. 


f 


11.0 


8.79 


7.83 


7.19 


11. 


277. 


222. 


198. 


182. 


4. 


13.4 


10.7 


9.50 


8.73 


\ 


317. 


253. 


226. 


207. 


1 


16.0 
18.9 


12.8 
15.2 


11.4 


10.5 


12 


360. 


288. 


257. 


236. 


\ 


13.5 


12.4 










22.7 I 17.9 


15.9 


14.6 


The ^ 


v^eights of ball 


s are as the 


5. 


26.0 1 20.8 


18.6 


17.0 


cubes of 


their diams. 





BELLS— BLOWERS. 



73 



Pure Bell Metal Bells 

MADE OF BANC^^ ^IN AND CHILI COPPER. TABLE OF WEIGHTS, TONES, 
DIMENSIONS, ETC. 



POUNDS. 
WEIGHT 
ABOUT 



400 

450 

500 

550 

600 

650 

700 

750 

800 

900 

1,000 

1,100 

1,200 

1,300 

1,400 

1,500 

1,600 

1,700 

1,800 

2,000 

2,200 

2,500 

2,800 

3,000 

3,400 

3,700 

4,200 

4,800 

5,500 

6,200 



MEDIUM 
TONE. 



D 

c 

c 

B 

h 

b!z 

it 

G 
G 

fS 

F 

F 

E 

I 

D 

c 

A 



DIAMETER 
BELL. 



27 inches. 

28 " 



SIZE OF FRAME. 
OUTSIDE. 



29 " 


4 


29 " 


4 


30 " 


4 


31 " 


4 


32 " 


4 


33 " 


4 


34 " 


4 


35 " 


4 


36 " 


4 


37 " 


4 


38 " 


4 


39 " 


4 


40 " 


4 


41 " 


4 


42 " 


5 


43 " 


5 


44 " 


5 


46 " 


5 


47 " 


5 


50 " 


6 


52 " 


6 


54 - 


6 


55 " 


6 


56 " 


7 


58 " 


7 


60 " 




63 " 




66 " 





3 feet 4 inches. 

4 " 



5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

9 

' 9 

' 9 

'11 

'11 

'11 

' 4 

' 4 

' 4 

' 8 

' 8 

' 1 

' 1 

' 8 



DIAMETER 
WHEEL. 



3 feet 

4 " 4 inches. 
4 " 
4 *' 
4 '• 
4 " 
9 " 
9 " 
9 " 
9 " 
6 " 
6 " 
6 •' 
6 " 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 



Sturtevant Pressure Blowers. 

FOR CUPOLA FURNACES. 





m 


> 
h 


i^ 


« 




^ 






W 


a cfl 


< . 




^. 


V 


fa ^ 

O B 


DIAM. IN INCH 
E;^ INSIDE OF 
CUPOLA. 


MELTING CAPAC 
PER HOUR 
IN LBS. 


6 X 


fa « 


w 


PRESSURE IN 
OUNCES OF BLA 


o °* 


1 


1200 


4 


324 


4135 


5 


0.5 


2 


26 


1900 


5.7 


507 


3756 


6 


1 


3 


30 


2880 


8 


768 


3250 


7 


1.8 


4 


35 


4130 


10.7 


1102 


3100 


8 


3 


5 


40 


6178 


14.2 


1646 


2900 


10 


5.5 


6 


46 


8900 


18.7 


2375 


2820 


12 


9.7 


7 


53 


12500 


24.3 


3353 


2600 


14 


16 


8 


60 


16560 


32 


4416 


2270 


14 


22 


9 


72 


23800 


43 


6364 


2100 


16 


35 


10 


84 


33300 


60 


8880 


1815 


16 


48 



One square inch of blast is sufficient for one forge fire, or 90 square 
inches area of cupola furnace. 



74 



BLOWERS— FANS. 



Sturtevant^s Pressure Blowers. 

FOR FORGE FIRES. 









c" 






C* 






C 






n 






C 










i 






^ 






^ 






S 






S 






^ ,;; 




;-! 






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;.! 






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a 






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ft 






a 






a 








v^ 






u 






^ 






Vh 






u, 




u 

u 



5 


°n. 




<J 


■a 




< 


'd 




<J 


'0 




<: 


'D 




<1 


'O 








u 




^« 








It 




«« 


<u 






4» 


•f^° 


S 





"B 


■^ 


c 


"2 


^ 





'B 


s 


o 


"5 


^ 





"5 


$ 


^1 

P. 






u 


^ 




u 


J! 




S 




(J 




1 


S" 

(^ 





. 


<j 






y 


, 


. 


o 






o 


. 




^ 




2 p 


m 

> 


2 


a, 




.Q 


^ 


> 


02 


Ck 


> 


:s 


Ph 


(0 

> 


s 


P^ 





Z 










• 


z 




. 


(U 












z 


CO 


Pi 


u 


a 


« 


U 


HJ 


(^ 


a 


X 


K 


u 


lin' 


P< 


u 


w 


1 


5 


3725 


360 


0.5 






















' 




2 


7 


3103 


504 


0.7 


























3 


10 


2456 


720 


1 


2753 


810 


1.4 




















4 


14 


2224 


1008 


1.4 


2470,1134 


1.9 




















5 


20 


1814 1440 


2 


2026 


1620 


2.8 


2215 


1780 


3.6 














6 


26 


1619 


1872 


2.6 


1797 


2106 


3.6 


1960 


2314 


4.7 


2009 


2496 


6 








7 


36 


1344 


2592 


3.6 


1507 


2916 


5 


1641 


3204 


6.5 


1768 


3456 


8.3 


1898 


3708 


10,1 


8 


46 


1200 


3312 


4.5 


1330 


3726 


6.4 


1445 


4094 


8.4 


1565 


4416 


10.6 


1675 


4738 


13 


9 


60 


1035 


4320 


5.9 


1145 


4860 


8.3 


1250 


5340 


10.9 


1350 


5760 


13.8 


1446 


6180 


16.9 


10 


80 


902 


5760 7.9| 995 


6480 


11.2 


1085 


7120 


14.5 


1168 


7680 


18.4 


1253 


8240 


22.5 


Pres- 


1 






















sure. 


4 oz. 1 5 oz. 






6 oz. 






7 oz. 




8 oz. 





One square inch of blast is sufficient for one forge fire. 



Blower and l^xhausting Fans. 



NO 


OF BLOWER OR 


REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE 


REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE 


SQ. FEET OF BOILER 


TWO OUNCE BLAST FOR 


FOUR OUNCE BLAST FOR 


GRATE SURFACE SUP- 






BOILER FIRES. 


FORGE FIRES. 


PLIED BY BLOWER. 







2,600 


3,600 


6 




1 


2,300 


3,200 


8 




2 


1,928 


2,682 \ 10 




3 


1,638 


2,279 


14 




4 


1.410 


1,961 


20 




5 


1,194 


1,662 


27 




6 


1,018 


1,417 


36 




7 


878 


1,234 


48 




8 


766 


1,065 


62 




9 


671 


932 


80 




10 


598 


831 


100 



BLOWERS. 



75 



•paimbaj jaMo<j esaoH 


^ 






T 




00 


"T 


2 


2 




-2- 


1 

3 

O 


•ajnuira J9d 
ziv JO %B3} oiqno 


i 


2 


i 


i 


i 


1 




1 


1 


1 


1 


-a^nniin jad Fnoi^jniOAaa 


1 


1 


i 


i 


i 


00 


in 


1 


1 


1 


i 


•pajinbaa jaAvoj asjoH 


* 


9 


s 


&: 


2 


s 


5 


§ 
2 


^ 


S3 


?5 


i 

e 

3 

o 


•ajnuiui jad 
JIB JO jaaj 3iqno 


i 


1 


§ 


s 

53 


1 


i 


i 


i 


1 


1 


2 


•a^nuira aad suoiinioAan 




1 


i 




i 


s 


8 


2 


g 


i 


fe 


•pa.imb9jjaA4.oj asjoji 


^ 


s 


in 


«■ 


^ 




2 


2 


S 


§ 

2 


5 


i 

a 
a 
O 


•ajnuiui jad 
JI13 JO !jaaj oiqno 


p 


1 


t- 


1 




i 


i 


1 


i 


1 


2 


•ajnuiui jad suoi:;nioAaa 


i 


55 


1 


1 


1 


1 


■* 


1 


i 


i 


S 


•pajinbaj jaAioj asJOH 


s 


• 


^ 


^ 


^ 


•* 




5 

00 


~2 


•* 


00 


o 
c 

3 

o 


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JIB JO ^aaj oiqno 


g 


tX 


1 


i 


1 


i 


i 


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2 

3 


<H 


1 


ajnuiiu jad suoijniOAaa 


s 


1 


1 


1 


1 


i 


1 


2 


i 


£ 


c^ 


■pajinbaj jaAvoj asJOH 


g 


2 


2 


« 


K 


« 


lO 


to 


00 


g 


^ 


i 


ainuiin jad 
JIB JO ^aaj oiqno 


i 


i 


i 


i 


1 


2 


i 


i 


i 


1 


2 


•ajnuiiu jad suoianioAan 


o3 


1 


M 
S 


i 


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1 


1 


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i 


s 


g 


•pajinbaj jaAioj asJOH 


s 


^ 


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§ 


si 


5§ 


8 


lO 


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00 




o 

s 

<N 


•ajnuiui jad 
JIB JO ^aaj oiqno 


i 


s 

00 


s 


1 


1 


i 


§ 


i 


i 




1 


■ajnuiui jad suonnioAoy; 


« 

§ 


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76 



BLOWERS. 



Diameter of Blast Pipes for Cupola, Forge and Furnace Pres- 
sure Blowers. 

SIZE OF BLOWER IN BOLD FACE TYPE AT THE HEAD OF EACH DIVISION 

OF TABLE. 



NO. I 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT- 



50 



100 



150 



200 



300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



360 


51 


6i 


61 


7i 71 


515 


61 7i 


71 


8i 81 


635 


61 


71 


8i 


9 


9f 


740 


7i 


8i 


9 


9i lOi 






NO. 3 







Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 



100 1 150 



200 300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



720 


-^ 


8i 9 


9} 


lOi 


1030 


81 


9i 


lot 


11 


HI 


1270 


9i 


lOf j Hi 


HI 


121 


1480 


9| 11 12 


121 


13| 




NO. 5. 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 lOOj 150 



200 



300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES, 



1440 


9i 


101 


Hi 12i 


131 


2060 


11 


121 


131 14^ 


15J 


2540 


Hi 


131 


141 


15f 


161 


2960 


12|j 14ij 15|} 16|} 18 



NO. 2. 


Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 


LENGTHS OF BLA^T PIPE IN FT. 


50 100 


150 


20o{ 300 


DIAMETER IN INCHES. 


504 


61 


7i 


7f 


8i 8^ 


721 


7i 


8^. 


9 


9^ 


lOi 


889 


71 9 


9f lOf 11 


1036 


8f 


9-^ 


lOf 


11 Hf 



NO. 4. 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 



100 



150 



200 



300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



1008 


8i 91 


lOi 


101 


nt 


1442 


91 


101 


111 


12i[ 13| 


1778 


lOf} HI 


121 


131 


141 


2072 


11 


12f j 131 


14i 151 




NO. 6. 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 100 



150 



200 



300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



1872 


lOf 12i 13i 


13|j 15 


2678 


12i 14 


15ij 16 


17i 


3302 


13ij 15ij 16i| 17i 


181 


3848 


,14i 


16i 


17ij 18i 


20J 



BLOWERS. 



77 



NO. 7. 



Cubic feet of 
air trau^- 
mirted per 
minute. 



IlENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 



100 150 



200| 300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



2592 


12 


131 


15 


151 


17i 


3708 


131 


15ii ^'^^ 


18J 


191 


4572 


15ij 171 


181 


191 


21f 


5328 


16 } 18^} 20 


2U 


23 




NO. 9. 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 



100 



150J200 



300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES. 



4320 


14f 


17 181 19| 


21i 


6180 


17 19^ 


21 i 221 


241 


7620 


181 


21i 23^ 


241 


261 


8880 


19J 


22i 24i 26 j 28i 



NO. 8. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



I 
50 1 100| 150 



200 300 



DIAMETER IN INCHE.«. 



3312 


13i 


15i 16] 


17.] 


181 


4738 


15i 17f [ 19i 201 


211 


5842 


16f| 19i 20f 22 


23| 


6808 


171 20i 22i 23f 


251 






NO. lO. 





Cubic feet of 
air trans- 
mitted per 
minute. 



LENGTHS OF BLAST PIPE IN FT. 



50 jl00jl50|200|300 



DIAMETER IN INCHES 



5760 


16] 


19 20|l 21 1 


23| 


8240 


181 


21f 23f 


I 
25i| 27i 


10160 


201 


231 


251 [ 271 291 


11840 


22i 


25ij 27i 


29i 31i 



For testing a leather belt, a cutting of the material about 0.03 of an 
inch in thickness is placed in strong vinegar. If the leather has been 
thoroughly acted upon by the tanning, and is hence of good quality, it will 
remain, for months even, immersed without alteration, simply becoming a 
little darker in color. But, on the contrary, if not well impregnated by the 
tannin, the fibres will quickly swell, and alter a short period become trans- 
formed into a gelatinous mass. 



Portable glue for draughtsmen. Add together 5 ozs. of white glue, 2 
ozs. ot sugar, and 8 ozs. of clear water. Melt these in a water-bath, then 
cast into molds, and for use dissolve in warm water. 

To make liquid glue. Take 16 ozs. of white glue, 4 ozs. of dry white 
lead, 4 ozs. of alcohol, and 2 pints of clear soft water. Stir well and bottle 
while hot. 

Water-proof glue. Common glue, 1 pound, boiled in 2 quarts of 
skimmed milk. 



78^ 



^LOWERS. 



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BLOWERS. 



79 



Table of Speeds and Capacities of Buffalo Fan Blowers. 



AS APPLIED TO BOILERS, FURNACES, ETC. 





BOILE 


R3 AND FUBXACES. 


Boilers and Furnaces. 


B5 


Air Furnaces. 


• 


2 


-OZ. PRESSURE 




4 


-oz. pressure. 


6 


-oz. pressure. 


1 


1^ 




u 


k 


feu 












< 


k 


d 


s5 

B 


pa 

02 




o 


4, S 

0,H 




3i 
1! 




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c 


fl 


1 


"£.9 
2p^ 


II 

o 




r' 




5 


W 


r 




3 

o 


W 




6^ 






W 


IB 


3 


349.1 


295 


0.2 


4 


4963 


425 i 0.5 


1 B 


5 


6104 


495 


0.9 


2B 


4 


2823 


3?5 


0.3 


6 


3994 


535 


0.6 


2B 


7 


4929 


675 


1.1 


3B 


6 


2158 


561 


0.4 


8 


3065 


814 


0.9 


3B 


10 


3769 


990 


1.6 


4B 


10 


1706 


1025 


0.6 


15 


2424 


1517 


1.6 


4B 


18 


2979 


1845 


3. 


5B 


14 


1529 


1515 


0.8 


22 


2172 


2105 


2.3 


5B 


26 


2670 


2625 


4.3 


6B 


18 


1394 


1870 


1.1 


27 


1967 


2650 


3. 


6B 


33 


2419 


3285 


5.4 


7B 


26 


1203 


2695 


1.5 


38 


1709 


3805 


4.1 


7B 


47 


2102 


4725 


7.7 


8B 


37 


1019 


3670 


2. 


52 


1447 


5229 


5.6 


8B 


64 


1781 


6435 

8370 


10.5 


9B 


46 


884 


4790 


2.6 


68 


1268 


6882 


7.4 


9B 


83 


1545 


13.7 


10 K 


73 


706 


7510 


4. 


108 


1003 


10935 


15.2 


10 B 


131 


1221 


13185 


21.4 



Table of Capacities of Blowers and l^xhausters. 



DIAMETER OF 


PRESSURE OF 




CUBIC FEET OF 




FAX WHEEL. 


BLAST. 


RFYOLUTIONS. 


AIR. 


HORSE-POWER. 




1 4 oz. 


197 


6500 


.67 


50 inches 


1 3 «« 
1 4 


280 


9300 


1.90 




340 


11500 


3.10 




I 1 " 


400 


13150 


5.38 




f i OZ. 


180 


10000 


.92 


54 inches... 


\ 1 :: 


250 
300 


12500 
15000 


2.61 
4.27 




I 1 " 


350 


17500 


7.40 




f i oz. 


150 


12500 


1.19 




\ 1 ;; 


215 


17000 


3 38 




[ ! :: 


265 


22000 


5.60 




300 


25000 


9.55 




' \ oz. 


125 


16000 


1.53 


75 i.icnes... 


i " 


180 


22500 


4.55 


3 << 
4 


220 


27500 


7.42 




I 1 " 


260 


32000 


12.86 




r i oz. 


112 


20500 


2.08 




160 


29000 


5.88 




4 


195 


35500 


9.61 




I 1 " 


225 


40700 


16.66 




f ^ oz. 


105 


28500 


2.90 




145 


40200 


8.22 




4 

I 1 " 


ISO 


49300 


13.42 




207 


56875 


23.27 




r I oz. 

J i " 


90 


39500 


4.93 


110 inches 


120 


55880 


11.42 




! 4 


150 


68475 


18.67 




I 1 " 


180 


79046 


32.34 



80 BRICK WORK — BIBLE TERMS. 



BRICK I^AYING. 

Brick work is generally measured by 1 ,000 bricks laid in the wall. 

The U. S. Standard is 22 bricks per cubic foot laid in the wall. But the 
most general, and probably the most fair one, is to allow a certain number 
to the superficial foot for the different thickness of walls built. 

The following scale will be a fair average : 

41/2 inch Wall, or 1/2 Brick per Superficial Foot, 7 Bricks. 

9 " 1 " " 14. " 

13 " 11/2 " " 21 " 

18 " 2 " " 28 " 

22 " 21/2 '' " 35 " 

and 7 bricks additional for each half brick added to thickness. 

A brick-layer, with a laborer to keep him supplied with materials, will, 
in common house walls, average about 1,500 bricks; in neater outer faces, 
1,200; in massive work, he should average 2,000; and in large arches, 1,500 
bricks per day. 

Eight bushels (125 lbs. per bushel) of fire clay will lay 1,000 bricks. A 
load of mortar measures 1 cubic yard, or 27 cubic feet, and requires % 
of a cubic yard of sand and 9 to 10 bushels of lime, and will fill 30 hods. 
A barrel (about 250 lbs.) of lump lime is calculated to lay 1,000 bricks. 
Paving brick, 36 laid flat, or 82 on edge to the yard. 

In St. Louis, a 4-inch wall contains 7 bricks to the square foot. Multi- 
ply any other thickness of w^all by 7 for the number of bricks to the square 
foot. 

A brick is 81/2'' long, 414'' wide, and 2%^' thick, and 21 bricks make a 
cubic foot laid in the ^vall. 

Stock brick, weight 5% lbs each. 

Fancy " " 4% lbs. " 

Brick "Work and Plastering. 

31/2 barrels of lime will do 100 square yards of common plastering, 2 
coats. 

2 barrels of lime will do 100 square yards ol common plastering, 1 
coat. 

1 bushel of hair will do 100 square yards common plastering. 

2 bushels of good lime properly slacked and mixed with proper propor- 
tion of good sand, will make sufficient mortar to lay 1,000 bricks. 

Vs of a barrel of cement will lay one perch of ordinary rubble masonry, 

d:^finition op BiBiy:^ t:i5rms. 

A Cab was 3 pints. 

An Omer was 6 '* 

A Firkin was 7 " 

A Log was 1/2 ** 

A Lin was 1 gallon and 2 pints. 

An Ephad was 7 gallons aftd 5 pints. 

A Gerah was a cent. 



BIBLK TERMS. 81 



A Piece of Silver was 13 cents. 

A Shekel of Silver was about 50 cents. 

A Farthing was 7 cents. 

A Mite was less than 2 mills U. S. currenc}-. 

A Shekel of Gold was $8.00. 

A Talent of Silver was $538 30. 

A Talent of Gold was $13,809.00. 

A day's journey was 33^ miles. 

A Sabbath day's journey was about 1 English mile. 

A hand's breadth was 3% inches. 

A finger's " "1 inch. 

A cubit was nearly 22 inches. 

Ezekiel's Reed was nearly 11 feet. 



EI/KCTRIC W:E^I.DING. 

An electric welding machine is nothing more or less than a "convertor" 
the secondar}' coil of which contains but a single turn, or one coil of wire. 
It must have a large cross section of several square inches in order to carry 
the lieav\^ current induced therein without becoming heated. Upon the size 
and length of wire in the primary coil will depend the power of the machine 
because the greater the "ampere turns" the larger the induced current in 
the secondary coil. The "ampere turns" simply mean the number of am- 
peres sent through the primary coils, multiplied by the total number of 
turns of wire in such coils, and their size and length must be just sufficient 
to take care of the entire current from the alternating current generator 
that is to be used. After the secondary coil has been fitted with compound 
clamps for holding the pieces to be welded, and for squeezing them together 
when hot — when this has been done, and the primary coil wound on, the 
welding machine is read^'- for use, and nothing remains to be done except 
to clamp in the work and turn on the current. 



ADIABATIC CURVB. 



The word adiabatic means no transmission. The adiabatic curve recog- 
nizes the fact that as the temperature of steam varies with the pressure, 
the fall of temperature which accompanies expansion, and the rise which ac- 
companies compression, causes a greater change of pressure for a given 
change of volume than would take place if the temperature remained con- 
stant. The name adiabatic is applied to the curve, because if no transmis- 
sion of heat takes place from without to the steam during expansion, or 
from it during compression, a change of temperature due to the change oi 
volume must necessarily take place. The adiabatic curve is the true theo- 
retical one. 



82 



BOARD MEASURE 



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in — cD^ 00 CO 03 in Q <o — c- cooo-^ in ^t-weocoojiO 
— co-g'cDt-CTiOiM^int-oop'-'COincoQOOs-.-icjTrint- 
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^ Ci eo '^ ift « 



BOARD MEASURE. 



83 



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BOARD MEASURE. 



85 



Fl^NC^ BOARD TABI,:^. 



NO. OF BOARDS HIGH. 


ONE MILE. 


One 


2,640 feet. 

5,280 " 

7,920 " 

10,560 " 

13,200 " 


Two 


Three 


Four 


Five 



HALF MILE. QUARTER MILE. 



1,320 feet. 
2,640 " 
3,960 " 
5,280 " 
6,600 " 



660 feet. 
1,320 " 
1,980 " 
2,640 " 
3,300 " 



COMBUSTION AND EXPI^OSION. 

No oils, as such, will burn; much less do they explode. The vapor of oils will 
burn, and when properly mixed wdth air or ox3'gen wall explode. Oxygen in a 
gaseous state is necessary to support combustion, and that, for the most part, is 
found in the atmospheric air. To have a continuous flame in the burning of an 
oil requires a constant suppU^ of air and vapor at the point of combustion. The 
wick of a candle or lamp is only to aid in vaporizing the oil. A quart of water can 
be evaporated very soon by sprinkling it upon suspended cotton goods, but it 
would require a long time if left in the cup. For this reason "standard oil" that 
w^ill not burn in a vessel at ordinary temperatures without a w^ick, vv^ill easily take 
fire when thrown upon porous substances, like our clothing, carpets, etc. Heat 
stimulates evaporation largeh'. The heat generated by combustion in case of a 
burning wick keeps up evaporation, which nearly ceases when the flame is ex- 
tinguished. 

Fire Test.— Anj' oil can be raised to such a temperature that the consequent 
evaporation will be suflScient to feed a flame from its surface in a vessel without 
the aid of a wick, and that is called its fire test. Standard Refined Petroleum (,of 
most States) requires 110 degrees. Our Head Light (Petroleum) requires 175 de- 
grees. The Parafline Oil of our manufacture requires 275 degrees. For Crude Oil 
from Oil Creek, Penns^-lvania, and for Naphtha and Gasoline the fire test varies 
from ordinary temperatures to an unknown point far below zero. The ''flashing 
point,'" which is a little below the "fire test," is the temperature when a sufficient 
vapor is formed to support a flame an instant, but not permanentU^. When a 
quantity of combustible vapor or gas becomes thoroughly mixed with air in proper 
proportions, and the compound is confined in a vessel or room, igniting it would 
produce an explosion. This is also true of the ordinary city gas made from coal. 
Accidents from coal gas are not so likely to occur because the superior density of 
the air forces the separation; and. if possible, the escape of the gas. On the other 
hand, the vapor of Naphtha and Gasoline being heavier than the air, the air is 
forced out, ifthereisa chance for it to escape, leaving the vessel filled with the 
vapor, pure and unmixed. In "Standard" Refined Petroleum, 110 degrees fire test, 
though the evaporation is less, the danger of explosion is somewhat increased, be- 
cause the density' of its vapor is more nearly that of air, rendering the mixture 
more complete and more permanent. A full package of oil may burst by the simple 
expansion of the liquid in a -vi'arm day, but there will be no fire unless it is com- 
municated from another source, for there is no evidence that spontaneous combus- 
tion ever occurs with Petroleum. 

From the above we can readily see why there is so much less danger of accident 
when the tanks, barrels, cans, lamps, etc., containing Petroleum, are full of the 
liquid than when 01113^ partiallj^ filled; why flame will not ordinarily enter a can 
containing Naphtha, but will burn simply at the nozzle; why it is more likely to 
enter a can containing a little oil of heavier gravity and possibly explode it; why a 
burning heated lamp partially filled with oil, is liable to explode bj' sudden cooling 
air rushing in to fill the vacuum made b3^ the condensation of the A-apor. carrying 
the flame of the wick with it; and why thorough ventilation is so important 
wherever Petro'eum Oils are stored in open or leaky packages, and especially in 
cellars where the cask is subject to freqtient draft f >r retail sales. 

Remember that the vapor of Petroleum being invisible is an insidious foe, but; 
if kept in proper subjection, it becomes a very useful servant. 



86 



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8 


8 


gj 


f^ 


^ 


^ 


g 


l2 


eo 


§ 


S5 


g 


8^ 


g 


05 


S 


s 


i! 


S5 


I 


2 


8 


S 


g 


s 


s 


S 


S 


S 


g 


g 


i^ 


§ 


to 


g 


s 


s 


S ' 


^1 


S5 


8 


B 


■* 
'<j« 


S 


s 


§ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


8 


S; 


S; 


B 


^ 


§ 


g 


^ 


§ 


5 


1 


8 


B 


S5 


S 


s 


s 


S 


& 


g 


g 


g 


§ 


^ 


5§ 


g 


s 


8 


s' 


od 


8 


S 


Tf 


8 


CO 


^ 


g 


o 


S 


g 


o 


S 


in 


n 


s 


g 


^ 


& 


in 


o 


Ga 


o 


-'? 


S^ 


od 


S 


Ci 




^^ 


i> 


ii 


g 


g 


g 


S 


§ 


8 


g 


fe 


g 


•juara 


IS9ATIIJO 


?o 


j> 


00 


05 


o 


- 


(M 


eo 


Tt< 


to 


s 


T-1 


00 


05 


s 


55 


§3 


S3 


^ 



BONDS. 



87 



INV:^STM:eNT TABI,:^. 



The following table shows the rate per cent, of annual income from 
bonds bearing 5, 6, 7, or 8 per cent, interest, and costing from 40 to 125, 
the par value of the bonds being 100. 



BUYING PRICE. 


5 PER CENT. 


6 PER CENT. 


7 PER CENT. 


8 PER CENT. 


40 


12.50 


15.00 


17.50 


20.00 


41 


12.20 


14.64 


17.08 


19.52 


42 


11.90 


14.28 


16.66 


19.04 


43 


11.63 


13.95 


16.28 


18.61 


44 


11.36 


13.63 


15.90 


18.18 


45 


11.11 


13.32 


15.56 


17.78 


46 


10.86 


13.04 


15.21 


17.39 


47 


10 63 


12.77 


14.90 


17.02 


48 


10.41 


12.50 


14.53 


16.66 


49 


10.20 


12.25 


14.29 


16.33 


50 


10.00 


12.00 


14.00 


16.00 


51 


9.80 


11.76 


13.72 


15.68 


52 


9.61 


1153 


13.46 


15.38 


53 


9.43 


11.32 


13.20 


15.09 


54 


9.25 


11.11 


12.96 


15.81 


55 


9.09 


10.90 


12.72 


14.54 


56 


8.92 


10.70 


12.50 


14.28 


57 


8.77 


10.52 


12.27 


14.03 


58 


8.62 


10.34 


12.06 


13.79 


59 


8.47 


10.16 


11.86 


13.55 


60 


8.33 


. 10.00 


11.66 


13.33 


61 


8.19 


9.83 


11.47 


13.11 


62 


8.06 


9.67 


11.29 


12.90 


63 


7.93 


9.52 


11.11 


12.69 


64 


7.81 


9.37 


10.93 


12.50 


65 


7 69 


9.23 


10.76 


12.30 


66 


7.57 


9.09 


10.60 


12.12 


67 


7.46 


8.95 


10.44 


11.94 


68 


7.35 


8.82 


10.29 


11.76 


69 


7.24 


8.69 


10.14 


11.50 


70 


7.14 


8 57 


10.00 


11.43 


71 


7.04 


8.45 


9.85 


11.26 


72 


6 94 


8.33 


9.72 


11.11 


73 


6.84 


8.21 


9.58 


10.95 


74 


6.75 


8.10 


9.45 


10.80 


75 


6.66 


8.00 


9.33 


10.66 


76 


6 57 


7.89 


9.21 


10.52 


77 


6 49 


7.79 


9.00 


10.38 


78 


6.41 


7.69 


8.97 


10.25 


79 


6.32 


7-59 


8.86 


10.12 


80 


6.25 


7.50 


8.75 


10.00 


81 


6.17 


7.40 


8.64 


9.87 


82 


6.09 


. 7.31 


8.53 


9.75 


83 


6.02 


7.22 


8.43 


9.63 


84 


5.95 


7.14 


• 8.33 


9.52 


85 


5.88 • 


7.05 


8.23 


9.41 


86 


5.81 


6.97 


8.13 


9.30 


87 


5.74 


6.89 


8.04 


9.19 


88 


5.68 


6.81 


7.94 


9.09 


89 


5.61 


6.74 


7.86 


8.98 


90 


5.55 


6.66 


7.77 


8.88 



88 



BONDS — FALLING BODIES. 





Investment Table— Continued. 




BUYING PRICE. 


5 PER CENT. 


6 PER CENT. 


7 PER CENT. 


8 PER CENT. 


91 


5.49 


6.59 


7.69 


8.79 . 


92 


5.43 


6.52 


7.60 


8.69 


93 


5.37 


6.45 


7.52 


8.60 


94 


5.31 


6.38 


7.44 


8.51 


95 


5.26 


6.31 


7.36 


8.42 


96 


5.20 


6.25 


7.29 


8.33 


97 


5.15 


6.18 


7.21 


8.24 


98 


5.10 


6.12 


7.14 


8.16 


99 


5.05 


6.06 


7.07 


8.08 


100 


5.00 


6.00 


7.00 


8.00 


101 


4.95 


5.94 


6.93 


7.92 


102 


4.90 


5.88 


6.86 


7.84 


103 


4.85 


5.82 


6.79 


• 7.76 


104 


4.80 


5.76 


6.72 


7.69 


105 


4.76 


5.71 


6.66 


7.61 


106 


4.71 


5.66 


6.60 


7.54 


107 


4.67 


5.60 


6.54 


7.47 


108 


4.62 


5.55 


6.48 


7.40 


109 


4.58 


5.50' 


6.42 


7.33 


110 


4.54 


5.45 


6.36 


7.27 


111 


4.50 


5.40 


6.30 


7.20 


112 


4.46 


5.35 


6.25 


7.14 


113 


4.42 


5.30 


6.19 


7.07 


114 


4.38 


5.26 


6.14 


7.01 


115 


4.35 


5.21 


6.08 


6.95 


116 


4.31 


5.17 


6.03 


6.89 


117 


4.27 


5.12 


5.98 


6.83 


118 


4.23 


5.08 


5.93 


6.77 


119 


4.20 


5.04 


5 88 


6.72 


120 


4.16 


5.00 


5.83 


6.66 


121 


4.13 


4.95 


5.78 


6.61 


122 


4.09 


1 4.91 


5.73 


6.55 


123 


4.06 


4.87 


5.69 


6.50 


124 


4.03 


4.83 


5.65 


6.45 


125 


4.00 


1 4.80 


5.60 


6.40 



Falling Bodies. 

The space that a body will fall through in one second is 16 feet 1 inch. 
Remembering this quantity it is easy to find how far a body will fall in any 
given time. In the first second it falls 1 time this quantity; in the second 
second, 3 times; in the third second, 5 times, etc. In other words, multiply 
16 feet 1 inch (16.083 feet) by one of the odd numbers, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, etc. 
The whole space through which a body falls in a given time may be found 
by multiplying the square of the time by 16.083. Thus the space fallen 
through in 5 seconds would be 

5 X 5 X 16.083 = 402 ft. 21/2 in. 

Table showing the time occupied, the velocity required, and the dy- 
namic effect (expressed in pounds of static pressure) produced by a solid 
compact body weighing one pound, falling freely from rest by the force of 
gravity. 



FALLING BODIES. 



89 



HEIGHT 


Time in: seconds. 


VELOCITY IN 


PRESSURE IN 


FEET. LXCHES. 




FEET. 


POUNDS. 


1 


.072 


2 309 


10.248 


2 


.102 


3.266 


14.493 


3 


.125 


4.000 


17.750 


4 


.144 


4.619 


20.496 


5 


.161 


5.164 


22.915 


6 


.177 


5.657 


25.102 


7 


.191 


6.110 


27.114 


8 


.204 


6.532 


28.986 


9 


.216 


6.928 


30.744 


10 


.228 


7.303 


32.407 


11 


.239 


7.659 


33.989 


1 


.250 


8.000 


35.500 


1 1 


.260 


8.327 


36.950 


1 2 


.270 


8.641 


38.344 


1 3 


.279 


8.944 


39.690 


1 4 


.288 


9.238 


40.992 


1 5 


.297 


9.522 


42.253 


1 6 


.306 


9.798 


43.479 • 


1 7 


.314 


10.066 


44.670 


1 8 


.323 


10.328 


45.830 


1 9 


.330 


10.583 


46.962 


1 10 


.338 


10.832 


48.067 


1 11 


.346 


11.075 


49.148 


2 


.353 


11.314 


50.205 


2 1 


.361 


11.547 


51.240 


2 2 


.368 


11.776 


52.255 


2 3 


.375 


12.000 


53.250 


2 4- 


.382 


12.220 


54.227 


2 5 


.389 


12.436 


55.187 


2 6 


.395 


12.649 


56.130 


2 7 


.402 


12.858 


57.058 


2 8 


.408 


13.064 


57.971 


2 9 


.414 


13.266 


58.870 


2 10 


.421 


13.466 


59.755 


2 11 


427 


13.663 


60.628 


3 


.433 


13.856 


61.488 



The principles upon which this table has been computed are: 

Solid compact bodies fall through the same space in the same time, what- 
ever may be their weight. 

The spaces through which they fall in different times, are as the squares 
ot those times. 

The distance through which they fall the first second of time is 16 feet. 

The velocity acquired during any length of time, is at the rate of 32 
feet for each second. 

The dynamic effect produced by a body weighing one pound falling from 
rest through one foot, is equal to 35.5 pounds static pressure. 

The effects produced by bodies of different weights and moving with dif- 
ferent velocities, are directh' as the respective products of the weights by 
their respective velocities. 



90 



BOXES— COINS. 



Capacities of Boxes, of Given Dimensions. 

In the following table the dimensions given are for the inside of the box. 
A box 



W X 14^^ X IV ^ 


/ill contain 10 gallons. 


Sy X 7^^ X 4 '' 


" 


1 gallon. 


4^^ X 4^^ X 3.61^^ 


" 


' 1 quart. 


24'^ X 28^^ X 16'^ 


" 


5 bushels. 


16^^ X 12^^ X 11.2^^ 


" 


1 


12^^ X11.2^^X 8'' 


" 


i " 


7'' X 6.4^^X12'" 


" 


1 peck. 


8.4^^ X 8^' X 4'' 


" 


i " 


1 gallon contains 


231 


cubic inches. 


1 bushel " 2150.42 


" " 


Table ot Foreign 


Coins. 



COUNTRY. 



Argentine Republic 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British N. Amer 

ChiU 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Equador 

Egypt 

France 

German Empire 

Great Britain 

Greece 

Gautemala 

Hayti 

Honduras 

India 

Italy 

Japan 



Liberia 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

TripoH 

Turkev 

U. S. Columbia. 
Venezuela 



STANDARD. 



Double 
Single silver 

Double 
Single silver 
Single gold 
Single gold 

Double 

Double 
Single gold 
Single silver 
Single gold 

Double 
Single gold 
Single gold 

Double 
Single silver 

Double 
Single silver 
Single silver 

Double 

Double 

Single gold 
Single silver 

Double 
Single silver 
Single gold 
Single silver 
Single gold 
Single silver 

Double 
Single gold 

Double 
Single silver 
Single gold 
Single silver 
Single silver 



MONETARY UNIT. 



Peso 

Florin 

Franc 

Boliviano 

Milreis of 1,000 reis 

Dollar 

Peso 

Peso 

Crown 

Sucre 

Pound (100 piastres) 

Franc 

Mark 

Pound sterling 

Drachma 

Peso 

Gourde 

Peso 

Rupee of 16 annas 

Lira 

Yen|g.?ld 
/silver 

Dollar 

Dollar 

Florin 

Peso 

Crown 

Sol 

Milreis of 1,000 reis 

Rouble of 100 kopecks 

Peseta of 100 centimes 

Crown 

Franc 

Mahbub of 20 piastres 

Piastre 

Peso 

Bolivar 



VALUE IN u. s. 
MONEY. 



CTS. 

$0.96 
.33 
.19 
.68 
.54 

1.00 
.91 
.92 
.26 
.68 

4.94 
.19 
.23 

4.86 
.19 
.68 
.96 
.68 
.32 
.19 
.99 
.73 

1.00 
.73 
.40 
.68 
.26 
.68 

1.08 
.54 
.19 
.26 
.19 
.61 
.04 
.68 
.13 



MILLS. 
5 
6 

3 



2 
6 

8 

3 
3 

8 

6V2 

3 



Note. — The "Standard "of a given country is indicated as follows, 
namely: Double, when its standard silver coins are unlimited legal tender, 
the same as its gold coins; single gold or single silver, as its standard 
coins of one or the other nietal are unlimited legal tender, 



CROSS TIES— CHAINS. 



91 



Cross Ties per Mile of Railroad Track. 

CENTER TO CENTER. NUMBER OF TIES. 

11/2 feet 3,520 



1% 

2 

21/4 

2V2 

2% 

3 



3,017 
2,640 
2,348 
2,113 
1,921 
1.761 



The length of rails as usually sold is 90 per cent. 30 feet long, and 10 
per cent. 24 to 28 feet long, requiring 357 splice joints per mile. 

Weight and Strength of Iron Chains. 

Assuming 20 tons per square inch as the average breaking strain of a 
single straight bar of ordinary rolled iron, 1 inch in diameter; or 1 inch 
square; 19 tons, from 1 to 2 inches; and 18 tons from 2 to 3 inches. Chains 
of superior iron will require \ to ^ more to break them. 



Diam. 


1 Weight 






Diam. 


Weight 






of rod of 


I of 






,of rod of 


of 






which 


chain 


Breaking strain 


which 


chain 


Breaking strain 


links 


per 


of the chain. 


links 


per 


of the chain. 


are 


foot 






are 


foot 






made. 


run. 






made. 


run. 






Inches. 


Pounds 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Tons. 


h 


.325 


1,731' 


.773 




9.26 


49,280 


22.00 


1 
4 


.579 


3,069 


1.37 


n 


11.7 


59,226 


26.44 


h 


.904 


4,794 


2.14 


-J 1 
^4 


14.5 


73,114 


32.64 


i 


1.30 


6,922 


3.09 


11 


17.5 


88,301 


39.42 


h 


1.78 


9,408 


4.20 


-1 1 
^2 


20.8 


105,280 


47.00 


\ 


2.31 


12,320 , 


5.50 


11 


24.4 


123,514 


55.14 


i% 


2.93 


15,590 


6.96 


1 3 


28.4 


143,293 


63.97 


i 


3.62 


19,219 


8.58 


11 


32.6 


164,505 


73.44 


u 


4.38 


23,274 


10.39 


2 


37.0 


187,152 


83.55 


3 
4 


5.21 


27,687 


12.36 


2i 


46.9 


224,448 


100.2 




6.11 


32,301 


14.42 


2h 


57.9 


277.088 


123.7 


I 


7.10 


37,632 


16.80 


21 


70.0 


335,328 


149.7 


15 


8.14 


43,277 


19.32 


3 


83.3 


398,944 


178.1 



Short I/ink Chain. 





AVERAGE WT. 






AVERAGE WT. 




SIZE. 


PER 100 FT. 


PROOF . 


SIZE. 


PER 100 FT. 


PRoor. 


INCHES. 


POUNDS. 


TONS. 


INCHES. 


POUNDS. 


TONS. 


3 

1 6 


50 


1/4 


% 


790 


11 


V4 


90 


% 


H 


900 


i2y2 


h 


122 


IVs 


L 


1020 


1414 


% 


160 


2 


1150 


16 


i\ 


200 


21/2 


IVs 


1270 


18 


V2 


250 


31/2 


lr^6 


1420 


20 


i% 


320 


41/2 


IV4 


1580 


22 


% 


420 


5y2 


1^. 


1720 


24 


H 


500 


6% 


1% - 


1880 


26 


% 


590 


8 


! i,\ 


2050 


28 


H 


670 


9V2 


1V2 


2220 


30 



92 



CHAINS. 



Proofs and Weights of Chain. 





AVEIGHT PER FATHOM. 


TEST IN TONS. 




PROVED. 


STUD. 


PROVED. 


feTUD. 


1^6 


31/4 




1/2 




1/4 


41/2 




% 




1% 


6 




11/8 




% 


10 




1% 




/e 


12 




21/4 




1/2 


15 




3 


4 


A 


19 




33/4 


5 


% 


25 




4% 


6 


H 


30 




5% 


8V2 


% 


35 


33 


63/4 


10 


n 


40 


38 


7% 


12 


% 


48 


43 


9V8 


133/4 


ii 


54 


50 


IOV2 


153/4 


1 


64 


62 


12 


18 


ll^e 


70 


69 


131/2 


20f«o 


11/8 


75 


74 


151/4 


223/4 


i^ 


82 


80 


17 


251/2 


11/4 


96 


90 


183/4 


28/o 


ih 


99 


97 


201/2 


31 


1% 


- 110 


107 


22% 


34 


l/e 


118 


110 


241/2 


' 37f=^o 


IV2 


130 


125 


27 


4oy2 


Ir^e 


138 


133 


291/2 


44 


1% 


» 156 


145 


31% 


47^2 


IH 




152 




Sli'b 


1% 




165 




55r^o 


IM 




179 




59^0 


1% 




195 




63y4 


lit 




209 




67y2 


2 




225 




72 


2ii6 




250 




76^2 


21/8 




280 




81^4 


21/4 




325 




91310 



Cleveland Coil and Cable Chain. 



SIZE. 


AVERAGE AVEIGHT PER 
FATHOM IN POUNDS. 


1 PROOF. 




SIZE OF ANCHOr> 










ship's tonagb. 




INCHES. 


STUD LINK. 


SHORT LINK 


TONS. 










31/2 

51/2 
6I/4 

9 


14 








V2 






% 
1/2 




11/4 








j 21/2 








121/2 
15 


1 ^/2 








4 


30 


150 


r§ 




19 


5 


50 


200 


% 




25 


! 6 


75 


300 


u 




30 


8 


95 


400 


% 


33 


35 


10 


100 


500 


\% 


38 


40 


i 12 


110 


600 


% 


43 


47 


! 14 


130 


700 


B 


50 


54 


16 


160 


800 


1 


57 


60 


18 


200 


900 


IVs 


71 


74 


23 


280 


1300 


114 to 2 


83 


90 


' 28 


360 


1600 



CHIMNEYS. 



93 



chimn:^ys. 

The following table is based on the supposition that a commercial 
horse-power requires, as an average, the consumption of five pounds of coal 
per hour: 
Sizes of Chimneys, with Approximate Horse-Power of Boilers. 



z 


HEIGHT OF CHIMNEYS 


AND COMMERCIAL HORSE-POWER. 


SIDE OF 
SQUARE 
INCHES. 


EFFECTIVE 

AREA 
SQUARE FT. 


^ 

r^S 


50 ft. 


60 


70 


80 90 


100 


110 


125 150 

i 


175 200 


^^S 
^ 


18 


23 


25 


27 














1 


16 


0.97 


1.77 


21 


35 


88 


41 


















19 


1.47 


2.41 


24 


49 


54 


58 


62 
















22 


2.08 


3.14 


27 


65 


72 


78 


88 
















24 


2.78 


3.98 


30 


84 


92 


100 


107 


118 














27 


3.58 


4.91 


33 




115 


125 


188 


141 














30 


4.48 


5.94 


36 




141 


152 


168 


173 


182 












32 


5.47 


7.07 


39 






183 


196 


208 


219 












35 


6.57 


8.30 


42 






216 231 


245 


258 


2711 








38 


7.76 


9.62 


48 








811 


330 


848 


865 389 








43 


10.44 


12.57 


54 








868 


427 


449 


472 503 


651 






48 


13.51 


15.90 


60 








505 


586 


565 


593 632 


692 


748 


54 


16.98 


19.64 


66 










658 


694 


728 776 849 


918 981 


59 


20.88 


23.76 


72 










792 


885 


876 93411023 


1105 1181 


64 


25.08 


28.27 


78 












995 


1038 1107 1212131011400 


70 


29.78 


33.18 


84 












1168 1214 1294 1418 1531:1637 


75 


34.76 


38.48 


90 












1344 


1415 1496,1639 1770 1893 


80 


40.19 


44.18 


96 












1537 


1616'l720ll876 202712167 


86 


46.01 


50.27 



Proportions for Chimneys. 



>. 


•5^^^ 


■-^ U V ' 


o^=«oi 


C i- V- 

C (U o 


StS 


tiji 


eight of Chimn 
in Feet. 


ounds of Co 
Burned per Ho 
per Square Fo 
of Area at Top 
Chimney. 


eight in Inches 
Column of Wat 
Balanced by t 
Dratight Pre 
sure 


orse-I'o wer 
each Square Fo 
of Chimney A 
Sliming 7 Lbs. 
Coal per Hors 
Power. 


rea of Top of Chi 
ney in Feet p 
Horse-Power f 
1 or 2 Boilers. 


rea of Top of Chi 
ney in Feet p 
Horse-Power f 
Several Boilers. 




W 


Q^ 


w 


ffi 


< 


< 


< 


30 


78.14 


.218 


7.3 


.146 


.091 


.182 


40 


90.25 


.296 


8.4 


.126 


.077 


.155 


50 


101.01 


.364 


9.4 


.113 


.070 


.140 


60 


110.65 


.437 


10.3 


.103 


.064 


.129 


70 


119.52 


.5 


11.2 


.095 


.059 


.119 


80 


127.77 


.58 


11.9 


.089 


.055 


.111 


90 


135.52 


.656 


12.6 


.084 


.052 


.105 


100 


142.85 


.729 


13.3 


.08 


.05 


.100 


125 


159.71 


.911 


14.9 


.071 


.044 


.089 


150 


174.96 


1.09 


16.3 


.065 


.04 


.082 


175 


188.98 


1.26 


17.6 


.060 


.038 


.075 


200 


202.03 


1.45 


18.8 


.056 


.035 


.07 


225 


214.28 


1.64- 


20. 


.053 


.033 


-066 


250 


225.87 


1.82 


21. 


.05 


.031 


.063 


275 


236.90 


1.99 


22. 


.048 


.03 


.06 


300 


247.43 


2.18 


23. 


.046 


.028 


.057 



Each pound of coal burned yields from 13 to 30 pounds of gas, the vol- 
ume of which varies with the temperature. 

The intensity- of draft required varies with the kind and condition of the 
fuel, and the thickness of the fires. 

Wood requires the least and fine coal or slack the most draft. Anthra- 
cite coal slack requires a draft of 1% inches of water. The low^er grades 
of fuel cannot be iDurned to advantage with a chimney much less in height 
than 100 feet. 



94 



CHIMNEYS— CYLINDERS. 



A round chimney is better than a square one, and a straight flue is bet- 
ter than a tapering. 

The external diameter of a chimney at the base should be one-tenth of 
the height. The batter should be from /g to V4 inch to the foot on each side. 
A chimney should be 8 or 9 inches thick for 25 feet down from the top, and 
should increase 4 inches in thickness for every 25 feet down to the base. If 
the inside diameter exceeds 5 leet, the top thickness should be 12 inches, or 
13 inches for 25 feet down from the top. If the inside diameter is under 3 
feet, then the top may be 4 or 41/2 inches thick for 10 feet down. 

To Find the Horse-PoTyer of Chimney or Smoke Stack with 

Natural Draft. 
Rule : Find the cross sectional area of chimney or stack at its top, and 
multiply this by 10. Then multiply this product by the co-efficient, found 
in table, corresponding to the given height of chimney or stack. The pro- 
duct will be the horse-power of chimney or stack. 



Height of chimney 


1 10 


1 20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


Co-efficient 


0.5 


0.67 


0.8 


0.91 


100 


1.08 









Height of chimney 


j 80 


100 


140 


200 


300 


400 


Co-efficient 


1 23 


! 1.36 


1.58 


1.86 


2.23 


2 55 









A stack 50 feet high above grate should have a draught with gases at 
612 degrees Fah. and external air 62 degrees, about .375 inches of water. 
This result is found bymultipl3^)ng height ol chimney by the constant .0075. 
The power of boilers is much increased by a forced draught, the comparative 
efficiency being as follows: 

With Natural Draught = 1. 
" Jet " = 1.25 

" Blast " = 1.6 

TABiv:^ OP ar:eas of cyi,ind:ers. 



Advancing by One-half Inches From Six to Twenty-Four 

Inches. 



DIAMETER CYLINDER 


AREA CYLINDER IN 


DIAMETER CYLINDER 


AREA CYLINDER IN 


IN INCHES. 


SQUARE INCHES. 


IN INCHES. 


INCHES. 


6 


28.274 


15 


176.715 


6V2 


33.183 


151/2 


188.692 


7 


38.484 


16 


201.062 


7X 


44.178 


I6V2 


213.825 


8 


50.265 


17 


226.980 


3V2 


56.745 


171/2 


240.528 


9 


63.617 


18 


254 469 


9V2 


70.882 


18 1/2 


268.803 


10 


78.540 


19 


283.529 


lOVa 


86.590 


191/2 


298.648 


11 


95.033 


20 


314.160 


IIV2 


103.869 


20 1/2 


330.064 


12 


113.097 


21 


346.361 


I2V2 


122.718 


211/2 


363.051 


13 


132.732 


22 


380.133 


i3y2 


143.139 


221/2 


397.608 


14 


153.938 


23 


415.476 


141/2 


165.130^ 


231/2 


433.737 






24 


452.390 



These areas are found by multiplying. 
.7854. 



the square of the diameter by 



CYLINDERS— CASTINGS. 



ys 



CYWNDERS. 

Table of Contents in Cub. Feet, and in U. S. Gallons. 

Of 231 cub. ins. (or 7.4805 gallons to a cub. it.); and for one foot of length 
of the cylinder. For the contents for a greater diam. than any in the table, 
take the quantity opposite one-half said diam.; and multiply it by 4. Thus, 
the number of cub. ft. in one ft. length of a pipe 80 inches in diam. is equal 
to 8.728 X 4 = 34.912 cub. ft. So also with gallons, and areas. 







rOB 1 FT. IN 






FOR 1 PT. IN 






FOR 1 FT. IN 




Diam. 


LENGTH. 




Diam. 


LENGTH. 




Diam. 


LENGTH. 




^.9 




^.9 


05 


^•9 




Diam. 


in deci- 


l2d 


2 • 


Diam. 


in deci- 


«2« 


a> . 


Diam. 


in deci- 


l*d 


GO 


in 


mals of 


^}^^. 


0.Q 

o a 


in 


mals of 


^^S^.. 


-d 


in 


mals of 


^S", 


o-^ 


Ins. 


afoot. 


i-.^ 


gs 


Ins. 


a foot. 


^^^ 


=5^ 


Ins. 


a foot. 


%%^- 


=3« 






o-^ 


^i 






oq 


^i 






'^< 


^^ 


H. 


.0208 


.0003 


.0026 


\ 


.5625 


.2485 


1.859 


19. 


1.583 


1.969 


14.73 


A 


.0260 


.0005 


.0040 


7. 


.5833 


.2673 


1.999 


Vi 


1.625 


2.074 


15.52 


4 


.0313 


.0008 


.0057 


^ 


.6042 


.2868 


2.144 


20 


1.666 


2.182 


16.32 


/- 


.0365 


.0010 


.0078 


4 


.6250 


.3068 


2 295 


Vi 


1.708 


2.292 


17.15 


U 


.0417 


.0014 


.0102 


% 


.6458 


.3275 


2.450 


21. 


1.750 


2.405 


17.99 


I'^S 


.0469 


.0017 


.0129 


8. 


.6667 


.3490 


2.611 


Vi. 


1.792 


2.521 


18.86 


4 


.0521 


.0021 


.0159 


H 


.6875 


.3713 


2.7?7 


23. 


1.833 


2.640 


19.75 


16 


.0573 


.0026 


.0193 


V2 


.7083 


.3940 


2.948 


Vi 


1.875 


2.761 


20.65 


y^ 


0625 


.0031 


.0230 


% 


.7292 


.4175 


3.125 


23. 


1.917 


2.885 


22.58 


u 


.0677 


.0036 


.0270 


9. 


.7500 


.4418 


3.305 


Vi 


1.958 


3.012 


21.53 


i 


.0729 


.0042 


.0312 


M 


.7708 


.4668 


3.492 


24. 


2.000 


3.142 


23 50 


15 


.0781 


.0048 


.0359 


4 


.7917 


.4923 


3.682 


25. 


2.083 


3.409 


25.50 


1. 


.0833 


.0055 


.0408 


2£ 


.8125 


.5185 


3.879 


26. 


2.166 


3.687 


27.58 




.1042 


.0085 


.0638 


10. 


.8333 


.5455 


4.031 


27. 


2.250 


3.976 


29.74 


/4 


.1250 


.0123 


.0918 


\A 


.8542 


.5730 


4.286 


28. 


2.333 


4.276 


31.99 


M 


.1458 


.0168 


.1250 


y 


.8750 


.6013 


4.498 


29. 


2.416 


4.587 


34.31 


2 


.1667 


.0218 


.1632 


% 


.8958 


.6303 


4.714 


30. 


2.500 


4.909 


36.72 


H. 


.1875 


.0276 


.2066 


11. 


.9167 


.6600 


4.937 


31. 


2.583 


5.241 


39.21 


Vi 


.2083 


.0341 


.2550 


H 


.9375 


.6903 


5.163 


32. 


2.666 


5.585 


41.78 


4 


.2292 


.0413 


.3085 


Vi 


.9583 


.7213 


5.395 


33. 


2.750 


5.940 


44.43 


3. 


.2500 


.0491 


.3673 


%. 


.9792 


.7530 


5.633 


34. 


2.833 


6.305 


47.17 


H 


.2708 


.0576 


.4310 


12. 


1 Foot. 


.7854 


5.876 


35. 


2.916 


6.681 


49.98 


Vi 


.2917 


.0668 


.4998 


V^ 


1.042 


.8523 


6.375 


36. 


3.000 


7.069 


52.88 


U 


.3125 


.0767 


.5738 


13. 


1.083 


.9218 


6.895 


37. 


3.083 


7.468 


55.86 


4. 


.3333 


.0883 


.6528 


Vi 


1.125 


.9940 


7.435 


38. 


3.166 


7.876 


58.92 


H 


.3542 


.0985 


.7370 


14. 


1.167 


1.069 


7.997 


39. 


3.250 


8.296 


62.06 


Yi 


.3750 


.1105 


.8263 


^2 


1.208 


1.147 


8.578 


40. 


3.333 


8.728 


65.20 


M 


.3958 


.1231 


.9205 


15. 


1.280 


1.227 


9.180 


41. 


3.416 


9.168 


68.58 


5. 


.4167 


.1364 


1.020 


Vz 


1.292 


1.310 


9.801 


42. 


3.500 


9.620 


71.96 


H 


.4875 


.1503 


1.124 


16. 


1.333 


1.396 


10.44 


43. 


3.583 


10.084 


75.43 


4 


.4583 


.1650 


1.234 


V% 


1.375 


1.485 


11.11 


44. 


3.666 


10.560 


79.00 


^ 


.4792 


.1803 


1.349 


17. 


1.417 


1.576 


11.79 


45. 


3.750 


11.044 


82.62 


6 * 


.5000 


.1963 


1.469 


Ka 


1.458 


1.670 


12.50 


46. 


3.833 


11.540 


86.32 


H. 


.5208 


.2130 


1.594 


18. 


1.500 


1.767 


13.22 


47. 


3.916 


12.048 


90.12 


Vi 


.5417 


.2305 


1.724 


Vi 


1.542 


1.867 


13.97 


48. 


4.000 


12.566 


94.02 



TABI,]^ OF GAI,I,ONS. 



United States . 
New York — 
Imperial 



Cubic inches, 
in a gallon. 



231. 
221.81918 

277.274 



Weight of a 

Gallon in 

pounds 

Avoirdupois. 



8.33111 

8.00 

10.00 



Gallons in a 
cubic foot. 



7.480519 
7.901285 
6.232102 



Weight of 
a cubic foot 
of water, En- 
glish stand- 
ard, 62.3210- 
286 pounds 
Avoirdupois. 



WieiGHT OF CASTINGS BY W:eiGHT OF PATTi^RNS. 

Weight of pattern, white pine, x 16 gives weight in cast iron. 

Weight of pattern, white pine, X 17.1 *' " " wrought iron. 

Weight of pattern, white pine, X 17.3 " " "steel. 

Weight of pattern, white pine, X 18 '* " "copper. 

Weight of pattern, white pine, x 25 " " " lead. 

Shrinkage of Castings. 

Cast iron, V^, inch per lineal foot. 1 Tin, ^^ inch per lineal foot. 

Brass, ^^ inch per lineal foot. Zinc, ^^ inch per lineal foot. 

Lead, Vs inch per hneal foot. 



^ 



CiiidLtis. 



PATTERN WEIGHING ONE POUND 
AND MADE OP 



Mahogany 

Mahogany (St. Domingo) 

Maple 

Beech 

Cedar 





WILL WEIGH WHEN 


CAST IN. 




CAST IRON. 


ZINC. 


COPPER. 


•YELLOW 
BRASS. 


GUN 
METAL. 


Lbs, 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


8 


8 


10 


9.8 


10 


10 


9.5 


12 


iiy2 


12 


10 


9.8 


12V2 


12 


12.4 


11 


11 


14 


13.4 


13.8 


iiy2 


11.4 


I4y2 


14 


I4y2 



CIRCUMFBRENC:^ AND AR^AS 


OF CIRCI^BS. 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


[ DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


1 DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AHEA. 


35 — 


.0981 


.00076 


71/2 - 


23.56 


44.178 


16 - 


50.26 


201.06 


h 


.1963 


.00306 




23.95 


45.663 




50.65 


204.21 


.3926 


.01227 


7?i - 


24.34 


47.173 


16^ - 


51.05 


207.39 


ft - 


.5890 


.02761 




24.74 


48.707 




51.44 


210.59 


.7854 


.04908 


8 - 


25.13 


50.265 


16H — 


51.83 


213.82 


S 


.9817 


.07669 




25.52 


51.848 




52.22 


217.07 


% 


1.178 


.1104 


814 - 


25 31 


53.456 


16M - 


53.62 


220.35 


I'e 


1.374 


.1503 




26.31 


55.088 




53.01 


223.65 


11 - 


1.570 


.1963 


81/2 - 


26.70 


56.745 


17 — 


53.40 


226.98 


,% 


1.767 


.2485 




27.09 


58.426 




53.79 


230.33 


r - 


1.963 


.3067 


sy^ - 


27.48 


60.132 


IIH. - 


54.19 


233.70 


2.159 


.3712 




27.88 


61.862 




54.58 


237.10 


1 — 


2.356 


.4417 


9 — 


28.27 


63.617 


17/2 - 


54.97 


240.52 


y 


2.552 


.5184 




28.66 


65.396 




55.37 


243.97 


2.748 


.6013 


9J4 - 


29.05 


67.200 


17% - 


55.76 


247.45 


II 


2.945 


.6902 




29.45 


69.029 




56.16 


250.94 


i'' - 


3.141 


.7854 


91/2 - 


29.84 


70.882 


18 - 


56.54 


254.46 




3.534 


.9940 




30.23 


72.759 




56.94 


258.01 


IH - 


3.927 


1.227 


9?i - 


30.63 


74.662 


18^ - 


57.33 


261.58 




4.319 


1.484 




31.02 


76.588 




57.72 


265.18 


IH - 


4.712 


1.767 


10 — 


31.41 


78.539 


181/2 - 


58.11 


•268.80 




5.105 


2.073 




31.80 


80.515 




58.51 


272.44 


1% - 


5.497 


2.405 


10^ - 


32.20 


82.516 


18M - 


58.90 


276.11 




5.890 


2.761 




32.59 


84.540 




59.29 


279.81 


2 - 


6.283 


3.141 


101/2 - 


32.98 


86.590 


19 - 


59.69 


283.52 




6.675 


3.546 




33.37 


88.664 




60.08 


287.27 


2M - 


7.068 


3.976 


1034 - 


33.77 


90.762 


1914 - 


60.47 


291.03 




7.461 


4.430 




34.16 


92.885 i 




60.86 


294.83 


2yi - 


7.854 


4.908 


11 - 


34.55 


95.033 


19/2 - 


61.26 


298.64 




8.246 


5.411 




34.95 


97.205 




61.65 


302.48 


2'4 - 


8.639 


5.939 


1134 - 


35.34 


99.402 


19?£ - 


62.04 


306.35 




9.032 


6.491 




35.73 


101.62 




62.43 


310.24 


3 — 


9.424 


7.068 


1114 — 


36.12 


103.86 


20 - 


62.83 


314.16 




9.817 


7.669 




36.52 


106.13 




63.22 


318.09 


3H - 


10.21 


8.295 


11^ - 


36.91 


108.43 


2014 - 


63.61 


322.06 




10.60 


8.946 




37.30 


110.75 




64.01 


326.05 


3^/4 — 


10.99 


9.621 


12 - 


37.69 


113.09 


201/2 - 


64.40 


330.06 




11.38 


10.320 




38.09 


115.46 




64.79 


334.10 


35i - 


11.78 


11.044 


12ii - 


38.48 


117.85 


202^ - 


65.18 


338.16 




12.17 


11.793 




38.87 


120.27 




65.58 


342.25 


4 — 


12.56 


12.566 


121/2 - 


39.27 


122.71 


21 - 


65.97 


346.36 




12.95 


13.364 




39.66 


125.18 




66.36 


350.49 


4H - 


13.35 


14.186 


125^ - 


40.05 


127.67 


2154 - 


66.75 


354.65 




13.74 


15.033 




40.44 


130.19 




67.15 


358.84 


^Vz — 


14.13 


15.904 


13 - 


40.84 


132.73 


211/4 — 


67.54 


363.05 




14.52 


16.800 




41.23 


135.29 




67.93 


367.28 


42i - 


14.92 


17.720 


1314 - 


41.62 


137.88 


21% - 


68.32 


371.54 




15.31 


18.665 




42.01 


140.50 




68.72 


375.82 


5 — 


15.70 


19.635 


1314 - 


42.41 


143.13 


22 - 


69.11 


380.13 




16.10 


20.629 




42.80 


145.80 




69.50 


384.46 


5Ji - 


16.49 


21.647 


132i - 


43.19 


148.48 


2214 - 


69.90 


388.82 




16.88 


22.690 




43.58 


151.20 




70.29 


393.20 


5»4 — 


17.27 


23.758 


14 — 


43.98 


153.93 


22J^ - 


70.68 


397.60 




17.67 


24.850 




44.37 


156.69 




71.07 


402.03 


5% - 


18.06 


25.967 


1414 - 


44.76 


159.48 


223£ - 


71.47 


406.49 




18.45 


27.108 




45.16 


162.29 




71.86 


410.OT 


6 - 


18.84 


28.274 


IW2 — 


45.55 


165.13 


23 - 


72.25 


415.47 




19.24 


29.464 




45.94 


167.98 




72.64 


420.00 


634 - 


19.63 


30.679 


143^ - 


46.33 


170.87 


2314 - 


73.04 


424.55 




20.02 


31.919 




46.73 


173.78 




73.43 


429.13 


6J4 — 


20.42 


33.183 


15 - 


47.12 


176.71 


231/2 - 


73.82 


433.73 




20.81 


34.471 




47.51 


179.67 




74.21 


438.30 


GU - 


21.20 


35.784 


1514 - 


47.90 


182.65 


23% - 


74.61 


443.01 




21.57 


37 122 




48.30 


185.66 




75.00 


447.69 


7 — 


21.99 


38.484 


151/4 — 


48.69 


188.69 


24 — 


75.39 


452.39 




22.38 


39.871 




49.08 


191.74 




75.79 


457.11 


7M - 


22.77 


41.282 


152i - 


49.48 


194.82 


2414 - 


76.18 


461.86 




23.16 


42.718 




49.87 


197.93 




76.57 


466.63 



CIRCLES. 



97 



Circumferences and Areas of CmcL,Bs— Continued. 



DIA5r. 


CIKC. 


AREA. 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


2414 — 


76.96 


471.43 


33 - 


103.6 


8.55.30 


411/2 - 


130.3 


ia52.6 




77.36 


476.25 




104.0 


861.79 




130.7 


1360.8 


24% - 


77.75 


481.10 


3314 - 


104.4 


868.40 


1 4124 - 


131.1 


1369 




78.11 


485.97 




104.8 


874.84 




131.5 


1377.2 


25 - 


78.54 


■ 490.87 


331/2 - 


105.2 


881.41 


42 — 


131.9 


1385.4 




78.93 


495.76 




105.6 


888.00 




132.3 


1393.7 


25^4 - 


79.3-<i 


500.74 


3324 - 


106.0 


894.61 


4214 - 


132.7 


1401.9 




79.71 


50.5.71 




106.4 


901.25 




133.1 


1410.2 


251/ — 


80.10 


510.70 


34 - 


1068 


907.92 


4214 - 


133.5 


1418.6 




80.50 


515.72 




107.2 


914.61 




133.9 


1426.9 


2o9i - 


80.89 


520.70 


3414 - 


107.5 


92132 


4224 - 


134.3 


1435.3 




81.28 


52.5.83 




107.9 


928 06 




n4 6 


1443.7 


26 - 


81.68 


530.93 


aii/a — 


108.3 


934.82 


' 43 — 


n5 


14.52.2 




82.07 


536.04 




108.7 


941.60 




135.4 


1460.6 


2614 - 


82.46 


541.18 


^?4 - 


109.1 


948.41 


4314 - 


135 8 


14(i9.1 




82.85 


646. a5 




109.5 


955.25 




136.2 


1477.6 


26 1^2 — 


83.25 


.551.. 54 


35 


109 9 


962.11 


431/2 - 


l.^'6.6 


1486.1 




83.64 


556.76 




110.3 


968.99 




137.0 


1494.7 


26?4 - 


84.0;^ 


562.00 


351.4 - 


110.7 


975,90 


4324 - 


137.4 


1503.3 




84.43 


567.26 




lll.l ■ 


982.84 




137.8 


1511.9 


27 -- 


84.82 


572.55 


3514 — 


111.5 


989.80 


44 - 


138.2 


1520.5 




85.21 


.5-7.87 




111.9 


996.78 




1.38.6 


1529.1 


2714 - 


85.6) 


583.21 


3534 - 


1123 


1003.7 


4414 - 


139.0 


1537.8 




86.(X> 


.588.57 




112.7 


1010.8 




139.4 


1546.5 


2?»2 — 


86.39 


593.95 


36 — 


113.0 


1017.8 


44!4 — 


139.8 


1.555.2 




86.78 


599.37 




1114 


1024.9 




140.1 


1564.0 


27?£ - 


87.17 


604.80 


3614 - 


113.8 


1032.0 


4424 - 


140.5 


1572.8 




87.57 


610.26 




114.2 


1039.1 




140.9 


1581.6 


28 — 


87.96 


615.75 


361^ — 


114.6 


1049.3 


45 — 


141.3 


1.590.4 




88.35 


621.26 




115-0 


ia53.5 




141.7 


1599.2 


2314 - 


88.75 


626.79 


3624 - 


115.4 


1060.7 


45^4 - 


142.1 


1608.1 




89.14 


632.35 




115.8 


1067.9 




142.5 


1617.0 


281^ -- 


89.53 


637.94 


37 — 


116.2 


1075.2 


451/2 - 


142.9 


1625.9 




89.92 


643.54 




116.6 


1082.4 




143.3 


1634.9 


2334 - 


90.32 


649.18 i 


3714 - 


117.0 


1089.7 


4524 - 


143.7 


1643.8 




90.71 


654.83 




117.4 


1097.1 




144.1 


1652.8 


29 - 


91.10 


660.52 ! 


3714 — 


117.8 


1104.4 


46 — 


144.5 


16619 




91.49 


666 22 1 




117.2 


1111.8 




144.9 


1670.9 


29^4 - 


91.89 


671.95 


3724 


118.6 


1119.2 


4614 - 


145.4 


1680.0 




92.28 


677.71 




118.9 


1126.6 




145.6 


1689.1 


29^2 - 


92.67 


683.49 ; 


38 - 


119.3 


1134.1 


4614 - 


146.0 


1698.2 




93.06 


689.29 




119.7 


1141.5 




146.4 


1707.3 


29^ - 


93.46 


695.12 i 


3814 - 


120.1 


1149.0 


4624 - 


146.8 


1716.5 




93.85 


700.98 1 




120.5 


1156.6 




147.2 


1725.7 


30 - 


94.24 


706.86 


381/2 - 


120.9 


1164.1 


47 — 


147.6 


1734.9 




94.64 


712 76 




121.3 


1171.7 




148.0 


1744.1 


SOJi - 


95.03 


718.69 


3824 - 


1217 


1179.3 


4714 - 


148.4 


1753.4 




95.42 


724.64 




122.1 


1186.9 




148.8 


1762.7 


3014 - 


95.81 


730.61 


39 - 


122.5 


1194.5 


471/2 - 


149.2 


1772.0 




%.21 


736.61 ! 




122.9 


1202.2 




149.6 


1781.3 


3024 - 


96.60 


742.64 


3914 - 


123.3 


1209.9 


4724 - 


150.0 


1790.7 




96.99 


748.69 




123.7 


1217.6 




150.4 


1800.1 


31 - 


97.38 


754.76 


sm — 


124.0 


1225.4 


48 


150.7 


1809.5 




97.78 


760.86 




124.4 


1233.1 




150.1 


1818.9 


3114 - 


98.17 


766.99 1 


3924 - 


124.8 


1240.9 


: 4814 - 


151.5 


1828.4 




QSM 


773.14 ! 




12.5.2 


1248.7 




1.51.9 


1837.9 


31^ - 


98.96 


779.31 


40 - 


125.6 


1256.6 


48/2 - 


152.3 


1847.4 




99.35 


785.51 




126.0 


1264.5 




152.7 


18.56.9 


3194 - 


99.74 


791.73 


4014 - 


126.4 


1272.3 


48^ - 


153-1 


1866.5 




100.1 


797.97 




126.8 


1280.3 




153.5 


1876.1 


32 - 


100.5 


804.23 


401/^ — 


127.3 


1288.2 


49 — 


153.9 


1885.7 




100.9 


810.54 




127.6 


1296.2 




1W.3 


1895.3 


32^4 - 


101.3 


816.86 


4024 - 


128.0 


1304.2 


4914 - 


154.7 


1905-0 




101.7 


823.21 




128.4 


1312.2 




155.1 


1914.7 


32H - 


102.1 


829.5? 


1 41 _ 


128.8 


1320 2 


4914 — 


155 5 


1824.4 




102.4 


835.97 




129.1 


1328.3 




155.9 


1934.1 


azu - 


102.8 


842.39 


41M - 


129.5 


1336.4 


4924 - 


1562 


1943.9 




103.2 


848.83 




129.9 


1344.5 




156.6 


1953.6 



98 



CIRCLES. 



Circumferences and Areas of Circi,es— Continued. 



DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA 


DIAM. 


CIRC, 


ABBA. 


50 - 


157.0 


1963.5 


58/2 - 


183.7 


2687.8 


67 - 


210.4 


3525.6 




157.4 


1973.3 




184.1 


2699.3 




210.9 


3538.8 


5014 - 


157.8 


1983.1 


583£ - 


184.5 


2710.8 


6714 - 


211.2 


3552.0 




158.2 


1993.0 




184.9 


2722.4 




211.6 


3565.2 


501/2 - 


158.6 


2002.9 


59 - 


185.3 


2733.9 


67% - 


212.0 


3578.4 




159.0 


2012.8 




185.7 


2745.5 




212.4 


3591.7 


50M - 


159.4 


2022.8 


5914 - 


186.1 


2757.1 


6794 - 


212.8 


3605.0 




159.8 


2032.8 




186.5 


2768.8 




213.2 


3618.3 


51 - 


160.2 


2042.8 


591/2 — 


186.9 


2780.5 


68 - 


213.6 


3631.6 




160.6 


2052.8 




187.3 


2792.2 




214.0 


3645.0 


51% - 


.161.0 


2062.9 


59% - 


187.7 


2803.9 


6814 - 


214.4 


3658.4 




161.3 


2072.9 




188.1 


2815.6 




214.8 


3671.8 


51^ - 


161.7 


2083.0 


60 — 


188.4 


2827.4 


68 14 — 


215.1 


3685.2 




162.1 


2093.2 




188.8 


2839.2 




215.5 


3698.7 


51M - 


162.5 


2103.3 


6O14 - 


189.2 


2851.0 


6^94 - 


215.9 


3712.2 




162.9 


2113.5 




189.0 


2862.8 




216.3 


3725.7 


52 — 


163 3 


'^123.7 


60/2 - 


190.0 


28n.7 


69 - 


216.7 


373^.2 




163.7 


2133.9 




190.4 


2886.6 




217.1 


3752.8 


5234 - 


164.1 


2144.1 


6O34 - 


190.8 


2898.5 


63H - 


217.5 


3766.8 




164.5 


2154.4 




191.2 


2910.5 




217.9 


3780.0 


521/2 - 


164.9 


2164.7 


61 — 


191.6 


2922 A 


69/2 — 


218.3 


3793.6 




165.3 


2175.0 




192.0 


2934.4 




218.7 


3807.3 


52M - 


16.5.7 


2185.4 


61 14 - 


192.4 


2946.4 


6994 - 


219.1 


3821.0 




166.1 


2195.7 




192.8 


2958.5 




219.5 


3834.7 


53 ^- 


166.5 


2206.1 


61 1/2 - 


193.2 


2970.5 


7) — 


219.9 


3848.4 




166.8 


2216.6 




193.6 


2982.6 




220.3 


3862.2 


5314 - 


167.2 


2227.0 


em - 


193.9 


2994.7 


7014 - 


220.6 


3875.9 




167.6 


2237.5 




194.3 


3006.9 




221.0 


3889.8 


531/2 - 


168.0 


2248.0 


62 — 


194.7 


3019.0 


705^ - 


221.4 


3903.6 




168.4 


22.58.5 




195.1 


3031.2 




221.8 


3917.4 


53M - 


168.8 


2269.0 


6214 - 


195.5 


3043.4 


7094 - 


222.2 


3931.3 




169.2 


2279.6 




195.9 


3055.7 




222.6 


3945.2 


54 - 


169.6 


2290.2 


62/2 - 


196.3 


3067.9 


71 - 


223.0 


39.59.2 




170.0 


2300.8 




196.7 


3080.2 




223.4 


3973.1 


5414 - 


170.4 


2311.4 


6294 - 


197.1 


3092.5 


7134 - 


223.8 


3987.1 




17U.8 


'^322.1 




197.5 


3104.8 




224.2 


4001.1 


541/2 - 


171.2 


2332.8 


63 - 


197.9 


3117.2 


711/2 - 


224.6 


4015.1 




171.6 


2343.5 




198.3 


3129.6 




225.0 


4029.2 


54M - 


172.0 


2354.2 


6314 - 


198.7 


3142.0 


7194 - 


225.4 


4043.2 




172.3 


2365.0 




199.0 


3144.4 




225.8 


4067.3 


55 - 


172.7 


2375.8 


631/2 - 


199.4 


3166.9 


rf2 


226.1 


4071.5 




173.1 


2386.6 




199.8 


3179.4 




226.5 


4085.6 


5514 - 


173.5 


2397.4 


6394 - 


200.2 


3191.9 


7214 - 


226.9 


4099.8 




173.9 


2408.3 




200.6 


3204.4 




227.3 


4114.0 


551/2 - 


174.3 


2419.2 , 


64 - 


201.0 


3216.9 


7214 — 


227.7 


4128.2 




174.7 


2430.1 




201.4 


3229.5 




228.1 


4142.5 


55^ - 


175.1 


2441.0 


6414 - 


201.8 


3242.1 


7294 - 


228.5 


4156.7 




175.5 


2452.0 




202.2 


3254.8 




228.9 


4171.0 


56 - 


175.9 


2463.0 


64/2 - 


202.6 


3267.4 


73 


229.3 


4185.3 




176.3 


2474.0 




203.0 


3280.1 




229.7 


4199.7 


5614 - 


176.7 


2485.0 


6494 - 


203.4 


3292.8 


7314 - 


230.1 


4214.1 




177.1 


2496.1 




203.8 


3205.5 




230.5 


4228.5 


561/2 - 


177.5 


2507.1 


65 - 


204.2 


3318.3 


731^ — 


230.9 


4242.9 




177.8 


2518.2 




204.5 


3331.0 




231.3 


4257.3 


563£ - 


178.2 


2.529.4 


6514 - 


204.9 


3343.8 


7394 - 


231.6 


4271.8 




178.6 


2540.5 




205.3 


3356.7 




238.0 


4286.3 


57 — 


179.0 


2551.7 


651/2 — 


205.7 


3369.5 


74 — 


233.4 


4300.8 




179.4 


2562.9 




206.1 


3382.4 




232.8 


4315.3 


5714 - 


179.8 


2574.1 


6594 - 


206.5 


3395.3 


7414 - 


233.2 


4329.9 




1S0.2 


2585.4 




206.9 


3408.2 




233.6 


4344.5 


571/2 - 


180.6 


2596.7 


66 — 


207.3 


3421.2 


741/2 — 


234.0 


4359.1 




181.0 


2608.0 




207.7 


3434.1 




234.4 


4373.8 


579£ - 


181.4 


2619.3 


6614 - 


208.1 


3447.1 


7494 - 


234.8 


4388.4 




181.8 


2680.7 




208.5 


3460.1 




235.2 


4403.1 


58 - 


182.2 


2642.0 


66}-4 — 


208.9 


3473.2 


75 — 


235.6 


4417.8 




182.6 


2653.4 




209.3 


3486.3 




236.0 


4432.6 


5814 - 


182.9 


2664.9 


6694 - 


209.7 


3499.3 


7514 - 


236.4 


4447.3 




183.3 


2676.3 




210.0 


3512-5 




236.7 


4462.1 



CIRCLES. 



99 





Circumferences and 


Areas of Circi.es.— Concluded. 




DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 1 


DIAM. 


CIRC. 


AREA. 


7514 — 


237.1 


4476.9 


84 - 


263.8 


5541.7 


921/2 - 


290.5 


6720.0 




237.5 


4491.8 




264.2 


5558.2 




290.9 


6738.2 


76% - 


237.9 


4506.6 


8414 - 


264.6 


5574.8 


9214 - 


291.3 


6756.4 




238.3 


4521.5 




265.0 


5591.3 




291.7 


6776.4 


76 - 


238.7 


4.536.4 


84 '4 - 


265.4 


5607.9 


93 - 


292.1 


6792.9 




239.1 


4551.4 




265.8 


5624.5 




292.5 


6811.1 


7614 - 


239.5 


4566.3 


84% - 


266.2 


5641.1 


93?^ - 


292.9 


6829.4 




239.9 


4581.3 




266.6 


5657.8 




293.3 


6847.8 


76.1/2 — 


240.3 


4596.3 


85 - 


267.0 


5674.5 


931/2 - 


293.7 


6866.1 




240.7 


4611.3 




267.4 


5691.2 


1 


294.1 


6884.5 


762£ - 


241.1 


4626.4 


8514 - 


267.8 


5707.9 


93% - 


294.5 


6902.9 




241.5 


4641.5 




268.3 


5724.6 




294.9 


6921.3 


77 — 


241.9 


4656.6 


85"2 — 


268.6 


5741.4 


94 — 


295.3 


6939.7 




242.2 


4671.7 




268.9 


5758.2 




295.7 


6958.2 


77M - 


242.6 


4686.9 


85% - 


269.3 


5775.0 


9414 - 


296.0 


6976.7 




243.0 


4702.1 




269.7 


5791.9 




296.4 


6995.2 


771/2 — 


243.4 


4717.3 


86 - 


270.1 


5808.8 


941/2 - 


296.8 


7013.8 




243.8 


4732.5 




270.5 


5825.7 




297.2 


7032.3 


772i - 


244.2 


4747.7 


8614 - 


• 270.9 


5842.6 


94% - 


297.6 


7050.9 




344.6 


4763.0 




271.3 


5859.5 




298.0 


7069.5 


78 — 


245.0 


4778.3 


86/2 - 


271.7 


5876.5 


95 — 


298.4 


7088.2 




245.4 


4793.7 




272.1 


5893.5 




298.8 


7106.9 


78J4 - 


245.8 


4809.0 


86% - 


272.5 


5910.5 


9514 - 


299.2 


7125.5 




246.2 


4824.4 




272.9 


5927.6 




299.6 


7144.3 


781/4 — 


246.6 


4839.8 


87 - 


273.3 


5944.6 


95i'2 — 


300.0 


7163.0 




247.0 


4855.2 




273.7 


5961.7 




300.4 


7181.8 


78% - 


247.4 


4870.7 


8714 - 


274.1 


5978.9 


95% -j 


300.8 


7200.5 




247.7 


4886.1 




274.4 


5996.0 


1 


301.2 


7219.4 


79 - 


248.1 


4901.6 


871/2 - 


274.8 


6013.2 


96 - 


301.5 


7238.2 




248.5 


4917.2 




275.2 • 


6030.4 




301.9 


7257.1 


7914 - 


248.9 


4932.7 


87% - 


275.6 


6047.6 


9514 - 


302.3 


7275.9 




249.3 


4948.3 




276.0 


6064.8 




302.7 


7294.9 


791/2 - 


ii49.7 


4963.9 


88 - 


276.4 


6082.1 


9314 — 


303.1 


7313.8 




250.1 


4979.5 




276.8 


6099.4 




o03 5 


7332.8 


79% - 


250.5 


4995.1 


8814 - 


277.2 


6116.7 


96% - 


303.9 


7341.7 




250.9 


5010.8 




277.6 


6134.0 


1 


304.3 


7370.7 


80 - 


251.3 


5026.5 


881^^ - 


278.0 


6151.4 


97 _ -' 


304.7 


7389.8 




251.7 


5042.2 




278.4 


6168.8 




305.1 


7408.8 


80H - 


252.1 


5058.0 


88% - 


278.8 


6186.2 


9714 - 


305.5 


7427.9 




252.5 


5073.7 




279.2 


6203.6 




305.9 


7447.0 


8O14 — 


252.8 


5089.5 


89 - 


279.6 


6221.1 


971 ^ - 


306.3 


7466.2 




253.2 


5105.4 




279.9 


6238.6 


I 


306.6 


7485.3 


80% - 


253.6 


5121.2 


8914 - 


280.3 


6256.1 


97% - 


307.0 


7504.5 




254.0 


5137.1 




280.7 


6273.6 




307.4 


7523.7 


81 - 


254.4 


5153.0 


8914 — 


281.1 


6291.2 


98 - 


307.8 


?542.9 




254.8 


5168.9 




281.5 


6308.8 




308.2 


7562.2 


81H - 


255.2 


5184.8 


89% - 


281.9 


6326.4 


9314 -' 


308.6 


7581.5 




255.6 


5200.8 




282.3 


6344.0 




309.0 


7600.8 


81 1/2 — 


256.0 


5216.8 


90 — 


282.7 


6361.7 


984 - 


309.4 


7620.1 




256.4 


5232.8 




283.1 


6379.4 




309.8 


7639.4 


81% - 


256.8 


5248.8 


9314 - 


283.5 


0397.1 


9S% - 


310.2 


7658.8 




257.2 


52&4.9 




283.9 


6414.8 




310.6 


7678.2 


'83 - 


257.6 


5281.0 


901/2 - 


284.3 


6432.6 


99 — 


311.0 


7697.7 




258.0 


5297.1 




284.7 


6450.4 


1 


311.4 


7717.1 


82M - 


258.3 


5313.2 


90% - 


285.1 


6468.2 


9914 - 


311.8 


7736.6 




258.7 


5329.4 




285.4 


6486.0 




312.1 


7756.1 


821/2 - 


259.1 


5345.6 


91 - 


285.8 


6503.8 


991/i — 


312.5 


7775.6 




259.5 


5361.8 




286.2 


6521.7 




312.9 


7795.2 


82% - 


259.9 


5378.0 


9114 - 


286.6 


6539.6 


99% - 


313.3 


7814.7 




260.3 


5394.3 




287.0 


6557.6 




313.7 


7834.3 


83 - 


260.7 


5410.6 


9114 - 


287.4 


6575.5 


100 - 


314.1 


7853.6 




'■ 261.1 


5426.9 




287.8 


6593.5 




314.5 


7853.9 


8314 - 


261.5 


5443.2 


91% - 


288.2 


6611.5 


10014 - 


314.9 


7893.3 




261.9 


5459.6 




288.6 


6629.5 




31.5.3 


7913.1 


8314 - 


232.3 


5476.0 


92 — 


289.0 


6647.6 


lOQi^ — 


315.7 


7932.7 




262.7 


5492.4 




289.4 


6665.7 




316.0 


7942.4 


83% - 


263.1 


5508.8 


9214 - 


289.8 


6683.8 


100% - 


316.4 


7972.2 




263.5 


5525.3 




290.2 


6701.9 




316.8 


7991.9 



100 



CIRCLES. 



Areas and Circumferences of Circles. 
For Diameters from i-io to loo, Advancing by Tenths. 



DIAMETER 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAMETER. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


0.0 






.5 


15 9043 


14.1372 


.1 


.007854 


.31416 


.6 


16.6190 1 


14.4513 


.2 


.031416 


.62832 


.7 


17.3494 


14.7655 


.3 


.070686 


.94248 


.8 


18.0956 


15.0796 


.4 


.12566 


. 1.2566 


.9 


18.8574 


15.3938 


.5 


.19635 


1.5708 


5.0 


19.6350 


15.7080 


.6 


.28274 


1.8850 


.1 


20.4282 


16.0221 


.7 


,38485 


2.1991 


.2 


21.2372 


16.3363 


.8 


.50266 


2.5133 


.3 


22.0618 


16.6504 


.9 


.63617 


2.8274 


.4 


22.9022 


16.9646 


1.0 


.7854 


3.1416 j 


.5 


23.7583 


17.2788 


.1 


.9503 


3.4558 1 


.6 


24.6301 


17.5929 


.2 


1.1310 


3.7699 


.7 


25.5176 


17.9071 


.3 


1.3273 


4.0841 


.8 


26.4208 


18.2212 


.4 


1.5394 


4.3982 


.9 


27.3397 


18.5354 


.5 


1.7681 


4.7124 


6.0 


28.2743 


18.8496 


.6 


, 2.0106 


5.0265 


.1 


29.2247 


19.1637 


.7 


2.2698 


5.3407 


.2 


30.1907 


19.4779 


.8 


2.5447 


5.6549 


'.?> 


31.1725 


19.7920 


.9 


2.8353 


5.9690 


.4 


32 1699 


20.1062 


2.0 


3.1416 


6.2832 


.5 


33.1831 


20.4204 


.1 


3.4636 


6.5973 


.6 


34.2119 


20.7345 


2 


3.8013 


6.9115 


• 7 


35.2565 


21. 0487 


3 


4.1548 


7.2257 


.8 


36.3168 


21.3628 


.4 


4.5239 


7.5398 


.9 


37.3928 


21.6770 


.5 


4.9087 


7.8540 


70 


38.4845 


21.9911 


.6 


5.3093 


8.1681 


.1 


39.5919 


22.3053 


.7 


5.7256 


8.4823 


2 


40.7150 


22.6195 


.8 


6.1575 


1 8.7965 


^3 


41.8539 


22.9336 


.9 


6.6052 


9.1106 


.4" 


43.0084 


23.2478 


3.0 


1 7.0686 


9.4248 


.5 


44.1786 


23.5619 


.1 


7.5477 


9.7389 


.6 


45.3646 


23.8761 


.2 


8.0425 


10.0531 


.7 


46.5663 


25.1903 


.3 


8.5530 


10.3673 


.8 


47.7836 


24.5055 


.4 


9.0792 


10.6814 


.9 


49.0167 


24.8186 


.5 


9.6211 


1 10.9956 


1 8.0 


50.2655 


25.1327 


.6 


10.1788 


1 11.3097 


.1 


51.5300 


25.4469 


.7 


10.7521 


11.6239 


1 .2 


52.8102 


25.7611 


.8 


11.3411 


11.9381 


.3 


54.1061 


26.0752 


.9 


11.9459 


I 12.2522 


.4 


55.4177 


26 3494 


4.0 


12 5664 


12.5664 


.5 


56.7450 


26.7035 


.1 


13.2025 


12.8805 


1 -6 


58.0880 


27.0177 


.2 


13 8544 


1 13.1947 


I .7 


59.4468 


27.3319 


.3 


14.5220 


1 13.5088 


.8 


60.8212 


27.6460 


.4 


15.2053 


1 13.8230 


.9 


! 62.2114 


27.9602 



CIRCLES. 



101 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 


1 AREA. 


1 CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


1 AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


9.0 
.1 

.2 
.'3 

.4 


63.6173 
65 0388 
66.4761 
67.9291 
69.3978 


28.2743 
28 5885 
28.9027 
29.2168 
29.5310 


.5 

.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


143.1388 
145.2672 
147.4114 
149.5712 
151.7468 


42.4115 
42.72v57 
43.0398 
43.3540 
43.6681 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


70.8822 
72.3823 
73.8981 
75.4296 
76.9769 


29 8451 
30.1593 
30.4734 
30.7876 
31.1018 


14.0 
.1 
,2 
.3 
.4 


153.9380 
156.1450 
158.3677 
160.6061 
162 8602 


43.9823 
44.2965 
44.6106 
44.9248 
45.2389 


10.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
A 


78.5398 
80.1185 
81.7128 
83.3229 
84.9487 


31.4159 
31.7301 
32.0442 
32.3584 
32.6726 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


165.1300 
167.4155 
169.7167 
172.0336 
174.3662 


45.5531 
45.8637 
46.1814 
46.4956 
46.8097 


.5 

:? 

.8 
.9 


86.5901 
88.2473 
89.9202 
91.6088 
93.3132 


32.9867 
33.3009 
33.6150 
33.9292 
34.2434 


15.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


176.7146 
179.0786 
181.4584 
183.8539 
186.2650 


47.1239 
47.4380 
47.7522 
48.0664 
48.3805 


11.0 
.1 
2 
.3 
.4 


95.0332 

96.7689 

98.5203 

100.2875 

102.0703 


34.5575 
34.8717 
35.1858 
35.5000 
35.8142 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


188.6919 
191.1345 
193.5928 
196.0668 
198.5565 


48.6947 
49.0088 
49.3230 
49.6372 
49.9513 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


103.8689 
105.6832 
107.5132 
109.3588 
111.2202 


36.1283 
36.4425 
36.7566 
37.0708 
37.3850 


16.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


201.0619 
203.5831 
206.1199 
208.6714 
211.2407 


50.2655 
50.5796 
50.8938 
51.2080 
51.5221 


12.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


113.0973 
114.9901 
116.8987 
118 8229 
120.7628 


37.6991 
38.0133 
38.3274 
38.6416 
38.9557 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


213.8246 
216.4243 
219.0397 
221.6708 
224.3176 


51.8363 
52.1504 
52.4646 

52.7788 
53.0929 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


122.7185 j 

124.6898 

1266769 

128.6796 

130.6981 


39 2699 
39 5841 

39 8982 
40.2124 

40 5265 


17.0 
.1 
2 
.3 
A 


226.9801 
229.6583 i 
232.3522 1 
235.0618 1 
237.7871 


53.4071 
53.7212 
54.0354 
54.3496 
54.6637 


13.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


132.7323 
134.7822 
136 8478 
138 9291 
141.0261 


40,8407 
41.1549 
41.4690 
41.7832 
42.0973 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


240.5282 
243.2849 
246.0574 
248.8456 
251.6494 


54.9779 
55.2920 
55.6062 
55.9203 
56.2345 



102 



CIRCLES. 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


18 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


254.4690 
257.3043 
260.1553 
263.0220 
265.9044 


56.5486 
56.8628 
57.1770 
57.4911 
57.8053 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


397.6078 
401.1500 
404.7078 
408.2814 
411.8707 


70.6858 
71.0000 
71.3142 
71.6283 
71.9425 


.5 
.6 

• .7 
.8 
.9 


268.8025 
271.7164 
274.6459 
277.5911 
280.5521 


58.1195 
58.4336 

58.7478 
59.0619 
59.3761 


23.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


415.4756 
419.0963 
422.7327 
426.3848 
430.0526 


72.2566 
72.5708 
72.8849 
73.1991 
73.5133 


19.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


283.5287 
286.5211 
289.5292 
292.5530 
295.5925 


59.6903 
60.0044 
60.3186 
60.6327 
60.9469 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


433.7361 
437.4354 
441.1503 

444.8809 
448.6273 


73.8274 
74.1416 
74.4557 
74.7699 
75.0841 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


298.6477 
301.7186 
304.8052 
307.9075 
311.0255 


61.2611 
61.5752 
61.8894 
62.2035 
62.5177 


24.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


452.3893 
456.1671 
459.9606 
463.7698 
467.5947 


75.3982 
75.7124 
76.0265 
76.3407 
76.6549 


20.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


314.1593 
317.3087 
320.4739 
323.6547 
326.8513 


62.8319 
63.1460 
63.4602 
63.7743 
64.0885 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


471.4352 
475.2916 
479.1636 
483.0513 
486.9547 


76.9690 
77.2832 
77.5973 
77.9115 
78.2257 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


330.0636 
333.2916 
336.5353 
339.7947 
343.0698 


64.4026 
64.7168 
65.0310 
65.3451 
65.6593 


25.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


490.8739 
494.8087 
498.7592 
502.7255 
506.7075 


78.5398 
78.8540 
79.1681 
79.4823 
79.7965 


21.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


346.3606 
349.6671 
352.9894 
356.3273 
359.6809 


65.9734 

66.2876 
66.6018 
66.9159 
67.2301 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


510.7052 
514.7185 
518.7476 
522.7924 
526.8529 


80.1106 

80.4248 
80.7389 
81.0531 
81.3672 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


363.0503 
366.4354 
369.8361 
373.2526 
376.6848 


67.5442 
67.8584 
68.1726 
68.4867 
68.8009 


26.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


530.9292 
535.0211 
539.1287 
543.2521 
547.3911 


81.6814 
81.9956 
82.3097 
82.6239 
82.9380 


22.0 

.1 

.2 

.3 

. .4 


380.1327 
383.5963 
387.0756 
390.5707 
394.0814 


69.1150 
69.4292 
69.7434 
70.0575 
70.3717 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


551.5459 
555.7163 
559.9025 
564.1044 
568.3220 


83.2522 
83.5664 
83.8805 
84.1947 
84.5088 



103 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
(Continued.) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 

84.8230 
85.1372 
85.4513 
85.7655 
86.0796 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


j CIRCUM. 


27.0 
.1 
,2 
.3 
.4 


572.5553 
576.8043 
581.0690 
585.3494 
589.6455 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


779.3113 
784.2672 
789.2388 
794.2260 
799.2290 


98.9602 
99.2743 
99.5885 
99.9026 
100.2168 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


593.9574 
598.2849 
602.6282 
606.9871 
611.3618 


86.3938 
86.7080 
87.0221 
87.3363 
87.6504 


32.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


804.2477 
809.2821 
814.3322 
719.3980 
824.4796 


100.5310 
100.8451 
101.1593 
101.4734 
101.7876 


28.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


615.7522 
620.1582 
624.5800 
629.0175 
633.4707 


87.9646 

88.2788 
88.5929 
88.9071 
89.2212 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


829.5768 
834.6898 
839.8185 
844 9628 
850.1229 


102.1018 
102.4159 
102.7301 
103.0442 
103.3584 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


637.9397 
642.4243 
646.9246 
651.4407 
655.9724 


89.5354 
89.8495 
90.1637 
90.4779 
90.7920 


33.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


855.2986 
860.4902 
865.6973 
870.9202 

876.1588 


103.6726 
103.9867 
104.3009 
104.6150 
104.9292 


29.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


660.5199 
665.0830 
669.6619 
674.2565 

678.8668 


91.1062 
91.4203 
91.7345 
92.0487 
92.3628 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


881.4131 
886.6831 
891.9688 
897.2703 
902.5874 


105.2434 
105.5575 
105.8717 
106.1858 
106.5000 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


683.4928 
688.1345 
692.7919 
697.4650 
702.1538 


92.6770 
92.9911 
93.3053 
93.6195 
93.9336 


34.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


907.9203 
913.2688 
918.6331 
924.0131 
929.4088 


106.8142 
107.1283 
107.4425 
107.7566 
108.0708 


30.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


706.8583 
711.5786 
716.3145 
721.0662 
725.8336 


94.2478 
94.5619 
94.8761 
95.1903 
95.5044 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


934.8202 
940.2473 
945.6901 
951.1486 
956.6228 


108.3849 
108.6991 
109.0133 
109.3274 
109.6416 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


730.6167 
735.4154 
740.2299 
745.0601 
749.9060 


95.8186 
96.1327 
96.4469 
96.7611 
97.0752 


35.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 . 


962.1128 

967.6184 
973.1397 
978.6768 
984.2296 


109.9557 
110.2699 
110.5841 
, 110.8982 
111.2124 


31.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


754.7676 
759.6450 
764.5380 
769.4467 
774.3712 


97.3894 
97.7035 
98.0177 
98.3319 
98.6460 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


989.7980 

995.3822 

1000.9821 

1006.5977 

1012.2290 


111.5265 
110.8407 
112.1549 
112.4690 
112.7832 



104 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

{Continued.) 



DIAM. . 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


36.0 

.1 

.2 
.3 
.4 


1017.8760 
1023.5387 
1029.2172 
1034.9113 
1040.6212 


113.0973 
113.4115 
113.7257 
114.0398 
114.3540 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1288.2493 
1294 6189 
1301.0042 
1307.4052 
1313.8219 


127.2345 
127.5487 
127.8628 
128.1770 
128.4911 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1046.3467 
1052.0880 
1057.8449 
1063.6176 
1069.4060 


114.6681 
114.9823 
115.2965 
115.6106 
115.9248 


41.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1320.2543 
1326.7024 
1333.1663 
1339.6458 
1346.1410 


128.8053 
129 1195 
129.4336 
129.7478 
130.0619 


37.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


1075.2101 
1081.0299 
1086.8654 
1092.7166 
1098.5835 


116 2389 
116.5531 
116.8672 
117.1814 
117.4956 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1352.6520 
1359.1786 
1365.7210 
1372.2791 
1378.8529 


130.3761 
130.6903 
131.0044 
131.3186 
131.6327 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


1104.4662 
1110.3645 
1116.2786 
1122.2083 
1128.1538 


117.8097 
118.1239 
118.4380 
118.7522 
119.0664 


42.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1385.4424 
1392.0476 
1398.6685 
1405.3051 
1411.9574 


131.9469 
132.2611 
132.5752 
132.8894 
133.2035 


38.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


1134.1149 
1140.0918 
1146.0844 
1152.0927 
1158.1167 


119.3805 
119.6947 
120.0088 
120.3230 
120.6372 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1418.6254 
1425.3092 
1432.0086 
1438.7238 
1445.4546 


133.5177 
133.8318 
134.1460 
134.4602 
134.7743 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1164.1564 
1170.2118 
1176.2830 
1182.3698 
1188.4724 


120.9513 
121.2655 
121.5796 
121.8938 
122.2080 


43.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1452.2012 
1458.9635 
1465.7415 
1472.5352 
1479.3446 


135.0885 
135.4026 
135.7168 
136.0310 
136.3451 


39.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1194.5906 
1200.7246 
1206.8742 
1213.0396 
1219.2207 


122.5221 
122.8363 
123.1504 
123 4646 
123.7788 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1486.1697 
1493.0105 
1499.8670 
1506.7393 
1513.6272 


136.6593 
136.9734 
137.2876 
137.6018 
137.9159 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1225.4175 
1231.6300 
1237.8582 
1244.1021 
1250.3617 


124.0929 
124.4071 
124.7212 
125.0354 
125.3495 


44.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


1520.5308 
1527.4502 
1534.3853 
1541.3360 
1548.3025 


138.2301 
138.5442 
138.8584 
139.1726 
139.4867 


40.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1256.6371 
1262.9281 
1269.2348 
1275.5573 
1281.8955 


125.6637 
125.9779 
126.2920 
126.6062 
126.9203 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


1555.2847 
1562.2826 
1569.2962 
1576.3255 
1583.3706 


139.8009 
140.1153 
140.4292 
140.7434 
141.0575 



lo: 



AREA AXD CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


ARKA. 


CIRCUM. 


45 

.1 

.2 
.3 

.4 


1590.4313 
1597.5077 
1604.5999 
1611.7077 
1618.8313 


141.3717 
141.6858 
142.0000 
142.3142 
142.6283 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1924.4218 
1932.2051 
1940.0042 
1947.8189 
1955.6493 


155.5088 
155.8230 
156.1372 
156 4513 
156.7655 


.5 

.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


1625.9705 
1633.1255 
1640.2962 
1647.4826 
1654.6847 


142.9425 
143.2566 
143.5708 

143 8849 

144 1991 


50.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1963.4954 
1971 3572 
1979.2348 
1987.1280 
1995.0370 


157.0796 
157.3938 
157.7080 
158.0221 
158.3363 


46.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1661.9025 
1669.136.0 
1676.3853 
1683.6502 
1690.9308 


144.5133 

144.8274 
145.1416 
145 4557 
145.7699 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2002.9617 
2010.9020 
2018.8581 
2026.8299 
2034.8174 


158.6504 
158 9646 
159.2787 
159.2929 
159.9071 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


1698 2272 
1705.5392 
1712.8670 
1720.2105 
1727.5697 


146.0841 
146.3982 
146.7124 
147.0265 
147.3707 


51.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


2042.8206 
2050 8395 
2058 8742 
2066.9245 
2074.9905 


160.2212 
160.5354 
160.8495 
161.1637 
161.4779 


47.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1734 9445 
1742.3351 
1749 7414 
1757.1635 
1764.6012 


147.6550 
147.9690 
148.2832 
148.5973 
148.9115 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2083.0723 
2091.1697 
2099.2829 
2107.4118 
2115.5563 


161.7920 
162.1062 
162.4203 
162.7345 
163.0487 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1772.0546 
17795237 
1787.0086 
1794 5091 
1802.0254 


149.2257 
149.5398 
149.8540 
150.1681 
150.4823 


52.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


2123.7166 
2131.8926 
2140.0843 
2148.2917 
2156.5149 


163.3628 
163.6770 
163.9911 
164 3053 
164.6195 


48.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1809 5574 
1817.1050 
1824 6684 
1832.2475 
1839.8423 


150.7964 
151.1106 
151.4248 
151.7389 
152.0531 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2164.7537 
2173.0082 
2181.2785 
2189.5644 
2197.8661 


164.9336 
165.2479 
165.5619 
165.8761 
166.1903 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


1847.4528 
1855.0790 
1862 7210 
1870.3786 
1878.0519 


152.3672 
152.6814 
152.9956 
153.3097 
153.6239 


53.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


2206.1834 
2214.5165 
2222.8653 
2231.2298 
2239.6100 


166.5044 
166.8186 
167.1327 
167.4469 
167.7610 


49.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


1885.7409 
1893 4457 
1901.1662 
1908.9024 
1916.-6543 


153.93S0 
154.2522 
154.5664 
154.8805 
155.1947 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2248 0059 
2256.4175 
2264 8448 
2273.2879 
2281.7466 


168.0752 
168.3894 
168.7035 
169.0177 
169.3318 



106 



CIRCLES. 



AREA AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


54.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2290.2210 
2298.7112 
2307.2173 
2315.7386 
2324.2759 


169.6460 
169.9602 
170 2743 
170.5885 
170.9026 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2687.8289 
2697.0259 
2706 2386 
2715.4670 
2724.7112 


183.7832 
184.0973 
184.4115 
184.7256 
185.0398 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


2332.8289 
2341.3976 
2349.9820 
2358.5821 
2367.1979 


171.2168 
171.5310 
171.8451 
172.1593 
172.4735 


59.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


2733.9710 
2743.2466 
2752.5378 
2761.8448 
2771.1675 


185.3540 
185.6681 
185.9823 
186.2964 
186.6106 


55.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2375.8294 
2384.4767 
2393.1396 
2401.8183 
2410.5126 


172.7876 
173.1017 
173.4159 
173.7301 
174.0442 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2780.5058 
2789.8599 
2799.2297 
2808.6152 
2818.0165 


186.9248 
187.2389 
187.5531 
187.8672 
188.1814 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2419.2227 
2427.9485 
2436.6899 
2445.4471 
2454.2200 


174.3584 
174.6726 
174.9867 
175.3009 
175.6150 


60.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2827.4334 
2836.8660 
2846.3144 
2855.7784 
2865.2582 


188.4956 
188.8097 
189.1239 
189.4380 
189.7522 


56.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2463.0086 
2471.8130 
2480.6330 
2489.4687 
2498.3201 


175.9292 
176.2433 
176.5575 
176.8717 

177.1858 


.7 
.8 
.9 


2874.7536 
2884.2648 
2893.7917 
2903.3343 
2912.8926 


190.0664 
190. 3805 
190.6947 
191.0088 
191.3230 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2507. J 873 
2516.0701 
2524.9687 
2533.8830 
2542.8129 


177.5000 
177.8141 
178.1283 
178.4425 
178.7566 


61.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2922.4666 
2932.0563 
2941.6617 
2951.2828 
2960.9197 


191.6372 
191.9513 
192.2655 
192.5796 
192.8938 


57.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2551.7586 
2560.7200 
2569.6971- 
2578.6899 
2587.6985 


179.0708 
179.3849 
179.6991 
180.0133 
180.3274 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2970.5722 
2980.2405 
2989.9244 
2999.6241 
3009.3395 


193.2079 
193.5221 
193.8363 
194.1504 
194.4646 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


2596.7227 
2605.7626 
2614.8183 
2623.8896 
2632.9767 


180.6416 
180.9557 
181.2699 
181.5841 
181.8982 


62.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


3019.0705 
3028.8173 
3038.5798 
3048.3580 
3058.1520 


194.7787 
195.0929 
195.4071 
195.7212 
196.0354 


58.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


2642.0794 
2651.1979 
2660.3321 
2669.4820 
2678.6476 


182.2124 
182.5265 
182.8407 
183.1549 
183.4690 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


3067.9616 
3077.7869 
3087.6279 
3097.4847 
3107.3571 


196.3495 
196.6637 
196.9779 
197.2920 
497.6062 



107 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



(Continued.) 



DIAM. 



63 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

64.0 

1 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

65.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

66.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

67.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 



AREA. 



3117.2i53 
3127.1492 
3137.0688 
3147.0040 
3156.9550 

3166.9217 
3176.9043 
3186.9023 
3196.9161 
3206.9456 

3216.9909 
3227.0518 
3237.1285 
3247.2222 
3257.3289 

3267.4527 
3277.5922 
3287.7474 
3297.9183 
3308.1049 

3318.3072 
3328.5253 
3338.7590 
3349.0085 
3359.2736 

3369.5545 
3379.8510 
3390.1633 
3400.4913 
3410.8350 

3421.1944 
3431.5695 
3441.9603 
3452.3669 
3462.7891 I 

3473.2270 
3483.6807 
3494.1500 
3504.6351 
3515.1359 



3525.6524 

3536.1845 

3546.7324 

I 3557.2960 

I 3567.8754 



CIRCUM. 



197.9203 
198.2345 
198.5487 
198.8628 
199.1770 

199.4911 
199.8053 
200.1195 
200.4336 
200.7478 

201.0620 
201.3761 
201.6902 
202.0044 
202.3186 

202.6327 
202.9469 
203.2610 
203.5752 
203.8894 

204.2035 
204.5176 
204.8318 
205.1460 
205.4602 

205.7743 
206.0885 
206.4026 
206.7168 
207.0310 

207.3451 
207.6593 
207.9734 

208.2876 
208.6017 

208.9159 
209.2301 
209.5442 
209.8584 
210.1725 

210.4867 
210.8009 
211.1150 
211.4292 
211.7433 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


3578.4704 
3589.0811 
3599.7075 
3610.3497 
3621.0075 


68.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


3631.6811 
3642.3704 
3653.0754 
3663.7960 
3674.5324 



CIRCUM. 



.O 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

69.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

,5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

70.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 

71.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 

.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 



3685.2845 
3696.0523 
3706.8359 
3717.6351 
3728.4500 

3739.2807 
3750.1270 
3760.9891 
3771.8668 
3782.7603 

3793.6695 
3804.5944 
3815.5350 
3826.4913 
3837.4633 

3848.4510 
3859.4544 
3870.4736 
3881.5084 
3892.5590 

3903.6252 
3914 7072 
3925 8049 
3936.9182 
3948.0473 

3959.1921 
3970.3526 
3981.5289 
3992.7208 
4003.9284 

4015.1518 
4026.3908 
4037.6456 
4048.9160 
4060.2022 



212.0575 
212.3717 
212.6858 
213.0000 
213.3141 

213.6283 
213.9425 
214.2566 
214.5708 
214.8849 

215.1991 
215,5133 
215.8274 
216.1416 
216.4566 

216.7699 
217.0841 
217.3982 
217.7124 
218.0265 

218.3407 
218.6548 
218.9690 
219.2832 
219.5973 

219.9115 
220.2256 
220.5398 
220.8540 
221.1681 

221.4823 
221.7964 
222.1106 
222.4248 
222.7389 

223.0531 
223.3672 
223.6814 
223.9956 
224.3097 

224.6239 
224.9380 
225.2522 
225.5664 
225.8805 



108 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


72.0 
.1 
.2 
.'3 
.4 


4071 5041 

4082.8217 
4094.1550 
4105.5040 

4116.8687 


226.1947 
226.5088 
226.8230 
227.1371 
227.4513 


.5 
.6 
.7 

■ .8 
.9 


4596.3464 
4608.3708 
4620.4110 
4632.4669 
4644.5384 


240.3318 
240.6460 
240.9602 
241.2743 
241.5885 


.5 

.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


4128.2491 
4139.6452 
4151.0571 
4162.4846 
4173.9279 


227.7655 
228.0796 
228.3938 
228.7079 
229.0221 


77.0 
.1 
2 
!3 
.4 


4656.6257 

4668.7287 
4680.8474 
4692.9818 
4705.1319 


241.9026 
242.2168 
242.5310 
242.8451 
243.1592 


73.0 
.1 
,2 
.3 
.4 


4185.3868 
4196.8615 
4208.3519 
4219.8579 
4231.3797 


229.3363 
229.6504 
229.9646 
230.2787 
230.5929 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


4717.2977 
4729.4792 
4711.6765 
4753.8894 
4766.1181 


243.4734 
243.7876 
244.1017 
244.4159 
244.7301 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


4242.9172 
4254.4704 
4266.0394 
4277.6240 
4289.2243 


230.9071 
231.2212 
231.5354 
231.8495 
232.1637 


78.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


4778.3624 
4790.6225 
4802.8983 
4815.1897 
4827.4969 


245.0142 
245.3584 
245.6725 
245.9867 
246.3009 


74.0 
.1 
.2 
!3 
.4 


4300.8403 
4312.4721 
4324.1195 
4335.7827 
4347.4616 


232.4779 
232.7920 
233.1062 
233.4203 
233.7345 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


4839.8198 
4852.1584 
4864.5128 

4876.8828 
4889.2685 


246.6150 
246.9292 
247.2433 
247.5575 
247.8717 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


4359.1562 
4370.8664 
4382.5924 
4394.3341 
4406.0916 


234.0487 
234.3628 
234.6770 
234.9911 
235.3053 


79.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


4901.6699 
4914.0871 
4926.5199 
4938.9685 
4951.4328 


248.1858 
248.5000 
248.8141 
249.1283 
249.4425 


75.0 
.1 
.2 
!3 
.4 


4417.8647 
4429.6535 
4441.4580 
4453.2783 
4465.1142 


235.6194 
235.9336 
236.2478 
236 5619 
236 8761 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


4963.9127 

4976.4084 
4988.9198 
5001 4469 
5013.9897 


249.7566 

250.0708 

250.3850- 

250.6991 

251.0133 


.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


4476 9659 
4488.8332 
4500.7163 
4512.6151 
4524.5296 


237.1902 
237.5044 
237.8186 
238.1327 
238.4469 


80.0 
.1 
.2 
!3 
.4 


5026.5482 
5039.1225 
5051.7124 
5064.3180 
5076.9394 


251.3274 
251.6416 
251.9557 
252.2699 
252.5840 


76.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


4536.4598 
4548 4057 
4560.3673 
4572.3446 
4584.3377 


238.7610 
239.0752 
239.3894 
239.7035 
240.0177 


.5 
•6 

' - .7 
.8 
.9 


5089.5764 
5102.2292 
5114.8977 
5127.5819 
5140.2818 


252.8982 
253.2124 
253.5265 
253.8407 
'254.1548 



CIRCLES. 



109 



AREA AND CIRCrMFHKE.XCES OF CIRCLES. 

( Continued.) 



DI.AM. 


AREA. 

5152.9973 
5165.7287 
5178.4757 
5191.2384 
5204.0168 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 
.5 

.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


81.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


254.4690 
254.7832 
255.0973 
255.4115 
255.7256 


5741.4569 
5754.8951 
5768.3490 
5781.8185 
5795.3038 


268.6062 
268.9203 
269.2345 
269.5486 
269.8628 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


5216.8110 
5229.6208 
5242.4463 
5255.2876 
5268.1446 


256.0398 
256.3540 
256.6681 
256.9823 
257.2966 


86 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


5808.8048 
5822.3215 
5835.8539 
5849.4020 
5862.9659 


270.1770 
270.4911 
270.8053 
271.1194 
271.4336 


82.0 
.1 

i 

.4 


5281.0173 
5293.9056 
5306,8097 
5319.7295 
5332.6650 


257.6106 
257.9247 
258.2389 
258.5531 
258.8672 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


5876.5454 
5890.1407 
5903.7516 
5917.3783 
5931.0206 


271.7478 
272.0619 
272.3761 
2^2.6902 
273.0044 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


5345.6162 
5358.5832 
5371.5658 
5384.5641 
5397.5782 


259.1814 
259.4956 
259.8097 
260.1239 
260.4380 


87.0 
.1 
2 
.3 
.4 


5944.6787 
5958.3525 
5972.0420 
5985.7472 
5999.4681 


273.3186 
273.6327 
273.9469 
274.2610 
274.5752 


83.0 
.1 
2 
.3 
.4 


5410.6079 
5423.6534 
5436.7146 
5449.7915 
5462.8840 


260.7522 
261.0663 
261.3805 
261.6947 
262.0088 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


6013.2047 
6026.9570 
6040.7250 
6054.5088 
6068.3082 


274.8894 
275.2035 
275.5177 
275.8318 
276 1460 


.5 

.6 

.7 

^ .8 

.9 


5475.9923 
5489.1163 
5502.2561 
5515.4115 
5528.5826 


262.3230 
262.6371 
262.9513 
263.2655 
263.5796 


88.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


6082.1234 
6095.9542 
6109.8008 
6123.6631 
6137.5411 


276 4602 
276.7743 
277.0885 
277.4026 
277.7168 


84.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


5541.7694 
5554.9720 
5568.1902 
5581.4242 
5594.6739 


263.8938 
264.2079 
264.5221 
264.8363 
265.1514 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


6151.4348 
6165.3442 
6179.2693 
6193.2101 
6207.1666 


278.0309 
278.3451 
278.6593 
278.9740 
279.2876 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


5607.9392 
5621.2203 
5634.5171 
5647.8296 
5661.1578 


265.4646 
265.7787 
266.0929 
266.4071 
266.7212 


89.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


6221.1389 
6235.1268 
6249.1304 
6263.1498 
6277.1849 


279.6017 
279.9159 
280.2301 
280.5442 
280.8584 


85.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


5674.5017 
5687.8614 
5701.2367 
5714.6277 
5728.0345 


267.0354 
267.3495 
267.6637 
267.9779 
268.2920 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


6291.2356 
6305.3021 
6319.3843 
6333.4822 
6347.5958 


281.1725 
281.4867 
281.8009 
1 282.1150 
282 4292 



110 



CIRCLES. 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



( Continued. ) 



DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


DIAM. 


AREA. 


CIRCUM. 


90.0 
.1 

.2 
.3 

.4 


6361.7251 
6375.8701 
6390.0309 
6404.2073 
6418.3995 


282.7433 
283.0575 
283.3717 
283.6858 
284.0000 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


7013.8019 
7028.6538 
7023.5214 
7058.4047 
7073.3033 


296.8805 
297.1947 
297.5088 
297.8230 
298.1371 


.5 
.6 
.7 
.8 
.9 


6432. 6073 
6446.8309 
6461.0701 
6475.3251 
6489.5958 


284.3141 
284.6283 
284.9425 
285.2566 

285.5708 


95.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


7088.2184 
7103.1488 
7118.1950 
7133.0568 
7148.0343 


298.4513 
298.7655 
299.0796 
299.3938 
299.7079 


91.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


6503.8822 
6518.1843 
6532.5021 
6546.8356 
6561.1848 


285.8849 
286.1991 
286.5133 
286.8274 
287.1416 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


7163.0276 
7178.0366 
7193.0612 
7208.1016 
7223.1577 


300.0221 
300.3363 
300.6504 
300.9646 
301.2787 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


6575.5498 
6589.9304 
6604.3268 
6618.7388 
6633.1666 


287.4557 
287.7699 
288.0840 
288.3982 
288.7124 


96.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


7238. 2295 
7253.3170 
7268.4202 
7283.5391 
7298.6737 


301.5929 
301.9071 
302.2212 
302.5354 
302.8405 


92.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


6647.6101 
6662.0692 
6676.5441 
6691.0347 
6705.5410 


289.0265 
289.3407 
289.6548 
289.9690 
290.2832 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


7313.8240 
7328.9901 
7344.1718 
7359.3693 
7374.5824 


303.1637 
303.4779 
303.7920 
304.1062 
304.4203 


.5 
.6 
.7 

.8 
.9 


6720.0630 
6734.6008 
6749.1542 
6763.7233 
6778.3082 


290.5973 
290.9115 
291.2256 
291.5398 
291.8540 


97.0 
.1 
.2 
!3 

.4 


7389.8113 
7405.0559 
7420.3162 
7435.5922 
7450.8839 


304.7345 
305.0486 
305.3628 
305.6770 
305.9911 


93.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 

.4 


6792.9087 
6807.5250 
6822.1569 
6836.8046 
6851.4680 


292.1681 
292.4823 
292.7964 
293.1106 
293.4248 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


7466.1913 
7481.5144 
7496.8532 
7512.2078 
7527.5780 


306.3053 
306.6194 
306.9336 
307.2478 
307.5619 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


6866.1471 
6880.8419 
6895.5524 
6910.2786 
6925.0205 


293.7389 
294.0531 
294.3672 
294.6814 
294.9956 


98.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


7542.9640 
7558.3656 
7573.7830 
7589.2161 
7604.6648 


307.8761 
308.1902 
308.5044 
308.8186 
309.1327 


94.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 


6939.7782 
6954.5515 
6969.3106 
6984.1453 
6998.9658 


295.3097 
295.6239 
295.9380 
296.2522 
296.5663 


.5 
.6 

.7 
.8 
.9 


7620.1293 
7635.6095 
7651.1054 
7666.6170 
7682.1444 


309.4469 
309.7610 
310.0752 
310.3894 
310.7035 



CIRCLES. 



m 



AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
{Continued.) 



DIAM. 



AREA. 



CIRCUM 



99 
.1 
.2 

.3 

.4- 



7697.6893 
7713.2461 
7728.8206 
7744.4107 
7760.0166 



311.0177 
311.3318 
311.6460 
311.9602 
312 2743 



100.0 



7775, 
7791. 
7806. 
7822. 
7838. 



6382 
2754 
9284 
5971 

2815 



7853.9816 



CIRCUM. 



312.5885 
312.9026 
313.2168 
313.5309 
313.8451 

314.1593 



To Compute the Area or Circumference of a Diameter Greater 
than lOO and I<ess than looi. 

Take out the area or circumference from table as though the ntimher 
had one decimal, and move the decimal point two places to the right for the 
area, and one place for the circumference. 

Example: Wanted the area and circumference of 567. The tabular 
area for 56.7 is 2524.9687, and circumference 178.1283. Therefore area 
for 567 = 252496.87 and circumference = 1781.283. 

To Compute the Area or Circumference of a Diameter Greater 

than looo. 

Divide by a factor, as 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., if practicable, that will leave a 
quotient to be found in table, then multiply the tabular area of the quo- 
tient by the square of the factor, or the tabular circumference b^^ the factor. 

Example: Wanted the area aud circumference of 2109. Dividing by 
3, the quotient is 703, for which the area is 388150.84 and the circumfer- 
ence 2208.54. Therefore area of 2109 = 388150.84 X 9 = 3493357.56, 
and circumference = 2208.54 X 3 = 6625.62. 



Areas of Circles from .05 in. to .25 in. 

BV HUNDREDTHS OF INCHES. 



DIAM. 


AREA. IN. 


DIAM. 


AREA. IN. 


DIAM. 


AREA. IN. 


.05 


.0019635 : 


.12 


.011309 


.19 


.028352 


.06 


.0028274 


.13 


.013273 


.20 


,031416 


.07 


.0038484 1 


.14 


.015393 


.21 


.034636 


.08 


.0050265 1 


.15 


.017671 


.22 


.038013 


.09 


.0063617 ! 


.16 


.020106 


.23 


.041547 


.10 


.0078539 , 


.17 


.022698 


.24 


.045239 


.11 


.0095033 


.18 


.025446 


.25 


.049087 



112 



CIRCLES. 



Table of the Areas of Circles and of the Sides of Squares of 

the same Area. 







Sides of 






Sides of 


Diam. of 


Area of 


Square of 


Diam. of 


Area of 


Square of 


Circle in 


Circle in 


same Area 


Circle in 


Circle in 


same Area 


Inches. 


Sq. Inches. 


in 


Inches 


Sq. Inches. 


in 






Sq. Inches. 






Sq. Inches 


1. 


.785 


.89 


11. 


95.03 


9.75 


.Ya 


1.227 


1.11 


. k; 


99.40 


9.97 


.% 


1.767 


1.33 


.^ 


103.87 


10.19 


.'% 


2.405 


1.55 


• % 


108.43 


10.41 


2. 


3.142 


1.77 


12. 


113.10 


10.63 


.¥ 


3.976 


1 99 


• ^4 


117.86 


10.86 


.% 


4.909 


2.22 


. ^''i> 


122.72 


11.08 


.% 


5.940 


2.44 


■ H 


127.68 


1130 


3. 


7.069 


2.66 


13. 


132.73 


11.52 


.K 


8.296 


2.88 


.% 


137.89 


11.74 


.y^ 


9.621 


3.10 


■ % 


143.14 


11.96 


.% 


11.045 


3.32 


.% 


148.49 


12.19 


4. 


12.566 


3.54 


14. 


153.94 


12.41 


.Va 


14.186 


3.77 


..^ 


159.49 


12.63 


• K 


15.904 


3. 99 


1,^ 


165.13 


12.85 


.% 


17.721 


4.21 


'.% 


170.87 . 


13.07 


5. 


19.635 


4 43 


15. 


176.72 


13.29 


.¥ 


21.648 


4.65 


.K 


182.66 


13.52 


.^ 


23.758 


4.87 


• % 


188.69 


13.74 


M 


25.967 


5 09 


.% 


194.83 


13.96 


6. 


28.274 


5 32 


16. 


201.06 


14.18 


.Va 


30.680 


5 54 


. % 


207.39 


14.40 


.% 


33.183 


5.76 


y 


213.83 


14.62 


• % 


35 785 


5.98 


'.% 


220,35 


14.84 


7. 


38 485 


6 20 


17. 


226.98 


15.07 


.% 


41.283 


6.42 


■ K 


233.71 


15.29 


• K 


44.179 


6.65 


.y 


240.53 


15.51 


.% 


47.173 


6 87 


.% 


247.45 


15.73 


8. 


50.266 


7.09 


18. 


254.47 


15.95 


• Va. 


53.456 


7.31 


. y 


261.59 


16.17 


.M 


56.745 


7.53 


.y 


268.80 


16.40 


.% 


60.132 


7.75 


M 


276.12 


16.62 


9. 


63.617 


7.98 


19. 


283.53 


16.84 


.Va 


67.201 


8.20 


.y 


291.04 


17.06 


.y. 


70. 882 


8.42 


.y 


298.65 


17.28 


.% 


74. 662 


8.64 


M 


306.36 


17.50 


10. 


78.540 


8.86 


20. 


314.16 


17.72 


.k 


82.516 


9.08 


.y 


322.06 


17.95 


• ^ 


86.590 


9.30 


.y 


330.06 


18.17 


• M 


90.763 


9.53 


^A 


338.16 


18.39 



113 



Table of the Areas of Circles and of the Sides of Squares of 

the same Area. 

(Continued.) 







Side of 






Side of 


Diam. of 


Area of 


Square ot 


Diam. of 


Area of 


Square of 


Circle in 


Circle in 


same Area 


Circle in 


Circle in 


same Area 


Inches. 


Sq. Inches. 


in 
Sq. Inches. 


Inches. 


Sq. Inches. 


in 
Sq. Inches. 


21. 


346.36 


18.61 


26. 


530.93 


23.04 


.^4' 


354.66 


18.83 


. % 


541.19 


23.26 


■ H 


363.05 


19.05 


.y^ 


551.55 


23.49 


.% 


371 54 


19.28 


.% 


562.00 


23.71 


22. 


380.13 


19.50 


27. 


572.56 


23.93 


.Vi 


388.82 


19.72 


..% 


583.21 


24.15 


. ^'.T ' 


397.61 


19.94 


• % 


593.96 


24.37 


'.% 


406.49 


20.16 


.% 


604.81 


24.59 


23. 


415.48 


20.38 


28. 


615.75 


24.81 


■ h 


424.56 


20.60 


.H 


626.80 


25.04 


.y^ 


433.74 


20.83 


.% 


637.94 


25.26 


.% 


443.02 


21.05 


M 


649.18 


25.48 


24. 


452.39 


21.27 


29. 


660.52 


25.70 


• /^ 


461.86 


21.49 


.Ya 


671.96 


25.92 


.3^ 


471.44 


21.71 


• M 


683.49 


26.14 


.% 


481.11 


21.93 


M 


695.13 


26.37 


25. 


490.88 


22.16 


30. 


706-86 


26.59 


.% 


500 74 


22.38 


• % 


718.69 


26.81 


• M 


510.71 


22.60 


• K 


730.62 


27.03 


.% 


520 77 


22.82 


.% 


742.65 


27.25 



Slow Speed and High Speed ^Engines. 

The reason why the high speed engines are preferred is because they 
develop more power from the same quantity of fuel, than the old fashioned 
engines. The theory is that the piston and rod, cross head and other recip- 
rocating parts, if they have a high speed, act upon the principle of the fly 
wheel, absorbing the force of the steam at the commencement, and giving 
it at the end of the stroke. The practical effect is to do away with the une- 
qual steam pressure experienced in ordinar\^ engines, securing in lieu there- 
of a uniform rotative pressure on the crank. The strain on each dead 
center is avoided in the high speed engine, and a uniform smoothness of 
running is attained. In a competitive trial in England not long ago, of 
two engines with cylinders of the same size, using the same weight of steam 
per horse power per hour, the high speed engine developed 43 per cent more 
horse power than its low speeded competitor. 



114 



Diameter and Circumference of Circles and the Contents in 
Gallons at One Foot in Depth. 



DIAMETSK. 1 


CIRCUM. 




GALLONS 


UlAMKtER. 


CiBCUM. 




GALLONS 










AREA IN 
FEET. 


1 FT. 
DEPTH. 










ABBA IN 


IFT. 
DEPTH. 


FBET. 


IN. 


FEET. 


IK. 


FEET. 


IN. 


FEET. 


IN. 


FEET. 






3 


1% 


.78 


5.87 




6 


14 


m 


15.90 


118.93 




1 


3 


4% 


.92 


6.89 




7 


14 


i% 


16.49 


123.38 




2 


3 


8 


1.06 


7.99 




8 


14 


7% 


17.10 


127.91 




3 


3 


11 


1.22 


9.17 




9 


14 


11 


17.72 


132.52 




4 


4 


2^8 


1.39 


10.44 




10 


15 


21/8 


18.34 


137.21 




5 


4 


5% 


1.57 


11.78 




11 


15 


5li 


18.98 


143.05 




6 


4 


81/2 


1.76 


13.21 
















7 


4 


\\% 


1.96 


14.72 


5 




15 


. 8/2 


19.63 


146.83 




8 


5 


29£ 


2.18 


16.31 


5 


1 


15 


11% 


20.29 


151.77 




9 


5 


5'^ 


2.40 


17.98 


5 


2 


16 


2% 


20.96 


156.78 




10 


5 


9 


2.63 


19.74 


5 


3 


16 


53i 


21.64 


16188 




11 


6 




2.88 


21.48 


5 


4 


16 


9 


22.34 


167.06 














5 


5 


17 


OH 


23.04 


172.33 


2 




6 


33/1 


3.14 


23.49 


5 


6 


17 


314 


23.75 


177.67 


2 


1 


6 


6y2 


3.40 


25.49 


5 


r- 


17 


6% 


24.48 


183.09 


2 


2 


6 


95^8 


3.68 


27.57 


5 


8 


17 


9% 


25.21 


188.60 


2 


3 


7 


0% 


3.97 


29.73 


5 


9 


18 


0% 


25.96 


194.19 


2 


4 


7 


37i 


4.27 


32.69 


5 


10 


18 


3% 


26.72 


199.^ 


2 


5 


7 


7 


4.58 


34.30 


5 


11 


18 


71/8 


27.49 


205.61 


2 


6 


7 


1014 


4.90 


36.70 














2 




8 


1% 


5.24 


39.19 


6 




18 


lOH 


28.27 


211.55 


2 


8 


8 


41/2 


5.58 


41.76 


6 


3 


19 


71/2 


30.67 


229.43 


2 


9 


8 


7% 


5.93 


44.41 


6 


6 


20 


4% 


33.18 


248.15 


2 


10 


8 


lOM 


6.30 


47.15 


6 


9 


21 


2% 


35.78 


267 61 


2 


11 


9 


l| 


6.68 


49.96 














3 




9 


5 


7.06 


52.86 


7 




21 


11% 


38.48 


287.80 


3 


1 


9 


814 


7.46 


55.83 


7 


3 


22 


914 


41.28 


308.72 


3 


2 


9 


11% 


7.87 


58.89 


7 


6 


23 


&% 


44.17 


330.38 


3 


3 


10 


2^2 


8.89 


62.03 


7 


9 


24 


41/8 


47.17 


352.76 


3 


4 


10 


5% 


8.72 


65.26 














3 


5 


10 


834 


9.16 


68.51 


8 




25 


IV2 


50.26 


375.90 


3 


6 


10 


UJi 


9.62 


73.15 


8 


3 


25 


11 


53.45 


399.76 


3 


7 


11 


3 


10.08 


75.41 


8 


6 


26 


s% 


56.74 


424.36 


3 


8 


11 


61/8 


10.55 


78.96 


8 


9 


27 


534 


60.13 


449.21 


3 


9 


11 


9% 


11.04 


82.59 














3 


10 


12 


OK2 


11.54 


86 30 


9 




28 


314 


63.61 


475.75 


3 


11 


12 


3=/8 


12.04 


90.10 


9 


3 


29 


0% 


67.20 


502.55 














9 


6 


29 


10% 


70.88- 


530.08 






12 


634 


1256 


93.97 


9 


9 


30 


71/2 


74.66 


558.35 




1 


12 


9% 


13.09 


97.93 
















2 


13 


1 


13.63 


101.97 


10 




31 


5 


78.54 


587.»> 




3 


13 


4% 


14.18 


103.03 


10 


3 


32 


2% 


82.51 


617.08 




4 


13 


nl 


14.74 


110.29 


10 


6 


32 


1134 


86.59 


647.55 




5 


13 


101/2 


15.32 


114. .57 


10 


9 


33 


m 


90.76 


678.27 



How to Reverse the Motion of an "Htigine, 

First make a mark on the side of the eccentric, near the shaft, with a 
scribe or small chisel; make a corresponding mark on the shaft at the same 
point, then place one point of a pair of calipers on the mark on the shaft, 
and with the other point find the center of the shaft on the opposite side. 
Then, with a scribe, mark this point also. Now unscrew the eccentric and 
move it around in the direction in which the engine is intended to run, until 
the mark on the eccentric comes into line with the second mark on the shaft; 
then make the eccentric fast, and the engine will run in the opposite direc- 
tion. It does not make any difference in what direction the crank is when 
the eccentric is moved. 



COPPER. 



115 



OFFICIAI, TABIy^ 



Adopted by the Association of Copper Manufacturers of the 

United States. 

Rolled copper has specific gravity of 8.93. One cubic foot weighs 
558 ,V^% lbs. One square foot, of one inch thick, weighs 46 i^oo lbs. 



o o 
P z 

c«3 


THICKNESS IN 

DECIMAL PARTS 

OF ONE INCH. 


OZ. PER SQUARE 
FOOT. 


3g§ 
It 




SHEETS 30x60 
WEIGHT IN LBS. 


SHEETS 36x72 
WEIGHT IN LBS. 


«2 ^ 


35 


.00537 


4 


1.16 


2 


3.12 


4.50 


6 


33 


.00206 


6 


1.75 


3 


4.68 


6.75 


9 


31 


.0107 


8 


2.33 


4 


6.25 


9 


12 


29 


.0134 


10 


2.91 


5 


7.81 


11.25 


15 


27 


.0161 


12 


3 50 


6 


9.37 


13.50 


18 


26 


.0188 


14 


4.08 


7 


10.93 


15.75 


21 


24 


.0215 


16 


4.66 


8 


12 50 


18 


24 


23 


.0242 


18 


5.25 


9 


14.06 


20.25 


27 


22 


.0269 


20 


5.83 


10 


15.62 


22 50 


30 


21 


.0322 


24 


7 


12 


18.75 


27 


36 


19 


.0430 


32 


9.33 


16 


25 


36 


48 


18 


.0538 


40 


11.66 


20 


31.25 


45 


60 


16 


.0645 


48 


14 


24 


37.50 


54 


72 


15 


.0754 


56 


16.33 


28 


43.75 


63 


84 


14 


.0860 


64 


18.66 


32 


50 


72 


96 


13 


.095 


70 




35 


55 


79 


105 


12 


.109 


81 




40^ 


63 


91 


122 


11 


.120 


89 




441 


70 


100 


134 


10 


.134 


100 




50 


78 


112 


150 


9 


.148 


110 




55 


86 


124 


165 


8 


.165 


123 




61 


96 


138 


184 


7 


.180 


134 




67 


105 


151 


201 


6 


.203 


151 




75i 


118 


170 


227 


5 


.220 


164 




82 


128 


184 


246 


4 


.238 


177 




88 1 


138 


199 


266 


3 


.259 


193 




96 


151 


217 


289 


2 


.284 ! 


211 




105^ 


165 


238 


317 


1 


.300 


223 




1111 


174 


251 


335 





.340 


253 




126i 


198 


285 


380 



Weight of Sheet Copper Per Square Foot. 

1^6 inch thick weighs 3 lbs. to the square foot. 

Vs " " " 6 " " 

% " " " 12 " 

% " •' " 24 " " •• '* 



116 



COPPER. 



The following comparative table of weights will be found useful in 
estimating on specifications — the gauge used being the standard in copper. 

Braziers' Sheet. 



SHEET. 


30x60. 


WEIGHT TO SQUARE 


BIRMINGHAM WIRE 






FOOT. 




GAUGE. 


12^ 


lbs. 


1 lb. 


^: 


No. 


24. 


13 




1.04 lbs. 


= 


" 


24 full. 


14 




1.12 " 


= 




23 light. 


15 




1.20 " 


= 




22^. 


16 




1.28 " 


== 




22 full. 


18 




1.44 " 


z=: 




21. 


20 




1.60 " 


= 




20 full. 


22 




1.76 " 


= 




19^. 


25 




2.00 " 


= 




18^. 


27 




2.16 " . 


= 




18 light. 


30 




2.40 " 







17|. 


35 




2.80 " 


= 




161 


40 




3.20 " 


= 




15 light. 


45 




3.60 " 


== 




14 light. 


55 




4.40 " 







13 full. 


65 




5.20 " 


= 




111. 


75 




6.00 " 


= 




10. 


80 




6.40 " 


= 




91. 


90 




7.20 " 


== 




8 light. 


100 




8.00 " 






7 


110 




8.80 " 






61 " 


120 




9.60 " 






5^ 



Gutter Copper. 



Thickness 
Wire Gauge. 



Usual Thickness of 30x60 sht. 
Pounds. Size. 



Sheets of Same Thickness. 
Pounds. 20x72. Oz. 






Tinned Copper. 




Thickness 
Wire Gauge. 


W^eight per Sheet. 
Pounds. Ounces. 


Size of Sheet. 
Inches. 


Wt persq ft. 
Ounces. 


24 
25 


4 i 9 

4 1 4 


14x48 
14x48 


14 
17 



Planished Copper. 

Boiler Size. 



Weight of Sheet. 
Pounds. Ounces. 


Number. Size of Sheet. 


3 
4 
5 
5 
4 
4' 


14 

2 
9 

4 


8 

9 

14 

16 


14x49 
14x52 
14x57 
14x60 
14x48 
14x48 



COPPER — CABLES. 



117 



Classification of Copper. 

Standard Size Braziers' 30" x 60'' 

Standard Size Sheathing 14'' x 48" 

All copper in sheets is numbered according to Stub's Gauge. 

All brass in sheets is numbered according to Brown & Sharpe's Gauge. 

Brass and Copper Wire is numbered according to Stub's Gauge. 

Brazed Brass and Copper Tubing is numbered according to Brown & 
Sharpe's Gauge 

Seamless Brass and Copper Tubing is numbered according to Stub's 
Gauge. 

In ordering sheet metal give width and temper wanted. 

In ordering wire alwaj^s state whether Hard, Soft or Spring Wire is 
wanted. 

Rolled copper has specific gravitj^ of 8.93. One cubic toot weighs 
558i*oVo ^bs. One square foot, of one inch thickness, weighs 46iVo l't)S. 

To Ascertain the Weight of Cast Copper. 

Rule : Find the number of cubic inches in the piece, multiply by 3146 
and the product will be the weight in pounds. 

Bolt Copper. 

weight per lineal foot. 



SIZE. 


ROUND. 


SQUARE. 


V4 inches. 


.19 pounds. 


.24 pounds. 


% " 


.424; " 


.54 " 


V2 " 


.755 


.96 '^ 


% " 


1.17 


1.50 


% " 


1.69 


2.16 " 


% " 


2.31 


2.94 " 


1 


3.02 


3.84 " 


IVs " 


3 82 


4.86 " 


IV4 " 


4.71 


6. 


1% " 


5.71 


7.27 " 


IV2 " 


6.79 


8.65 " 


1% " 


7.94 


10.15 " 


1% " 


9.21 


11.77 " 


lys " 


10.61 


13.52 •' 


2 


12.08 


15.38 " 



To Ascertain the Weight of Rolled Copper. 

Find the number of cubic inches in the piece, multiply by 0.3214, and 
the product will be the weight in pounds. 

Or, multiply the length and breadth (in feet) and that by the pounds 
per square foot. 

Bridge Wire Tables. 
New York and Brooklyn Bridge. 

Cable composed of 6,000 No. 7 galvanized cast steel wires. 
Ultimate strength of cable = 22,300,000 pounds. 
Diameter of cable = 15V2 inches. 

Covington and Cincinnati Bridge. 

Cable composed of 5,180 iron wires of No. 9 gauge. 
Ultimate strength of cable = 8,424,000 pounds. 
Diameter ot cable = 12 inches. 



118 



CABLES— CRUCIBLES. 



Niagara Railway Bridge. 

Cable composed of 3,640 iron wires of No. 9 gauge. 
Ultimate strength of cable = 6,000,000 pounds. 
Diameter of cable = 10 inches. 

John A. Roebling, Engineer. 



Galvanized Steel Tables. 



FOR SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 





^0 






^0 






U8 


% 




"bJCo 


4-> 



.s 


so . 




.s 







u . 


42 c ns 




4J * r2 


a. 


el 




^ 

bC 




Ul 


^ 


.1^ 


■-^.SPk 




.1^ 


•^.SPh 


<U- 


Q 


Vi 


Q 


U) 


'^ 


2% 


220 


13 


lys 


100 


5.8 


21/2 


200 


113 


1% 


95 


5.6 


23/8 


180 


10 


1% 


75 


4.35 


214 


155 


8.64 


1^2 


65 


3.7 


2 


110 


6.5 









SlZnS OF CRUCIBI^ieS. 







Diameter at 


! 

Diameter at; Diameter at 


Weight of 


CapacitA^ 




Height 


the Top 


the Bilge 


the Bottom 


the 


of Cruci- 


Numbers. 


Outside. 


Outside. 


Outside. 


Outside. 


Crucible. 


ble bv Wt. 
of Water. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. Oz. 


Lbs. Oz. 


1 


314 


21/2 


2% 


1% 


9 


4y4 


2 


3% 


27/8 


3 


21/8 


12 


6^2 


3 


41/2 


3V2 


3% - 


21/4 


1 8 


11 


4 


5 


4 


4^1% 


3 


1 13 


1 


5 


514 


41/4 


43/8 


31/8 


2 4 


1 4 


6 


5% 


4y2 


43/4 


33/8 


2 12 


1 12 


7 


6^4 


47/8 


5 


31/2 


3 3 


2 


8 


6V2 


5 


5l^6 


3% 


3 8 


2 4 


10 


73/8 


5/6 


53/4 


41/4 


4 12 


3 


12 


8 


6 


6 14 


43/4 


6 8 


4 8 


14 


83/8 


634 


TA 


53/8 


8 8 


5 4 


16 


9 


7 


71/2 


53/4 


9 4 


6 4 


18 


914 


71/4 


73/4 


57/8 


10 4 


7 4 


20 


934 


7% 


8V4 


6 


12 8 


8 12 


25 


1014 


8 


8% 


61/2 


14 4 


10 4 


30 


11 


83/8 


9 


63/4 


15 12 


12 4 


35 


11% 


91/8 


97/8 


714 


19 12 


15 8 


40 


121^ 


9f^6 


1014 


7rs 


22 


18 


45 


13 


95/8 


101/2 


73/4 


25 


20 


50 


13% 


93/4 


103/4 


77/8 


27 8 


22 


60 


133/4 


10% 


11 Vs 


8 


28 8 


24 


70 


14V2 


103/4 


lli^e 


81/8 


33 


26 4 


80 


15 


107/8 


12 


83/4 


37 8 


29 


100 


16 


11^2 


121/2 


9 


42 


32 4 


125 


16y2 


12^2 


133/4 


97/8 


51 12 


43 8 



CORDAGE. 



119 



APPROXIMATE Wl^IGHT AND STRENGTH OF 
CORDAGE. 



Circumferem-.e 


Diameter 


Weight 


Weight 


No. of Feet 


Strength of 
New Manila 


in 


in 


of 1,000 


per 


in 


• INCHED. 


INCHES. 


feet. 


Fathom. 


One Pound. 


Rope. 


Circ. 


Dia. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Feet per lb. 


Pounds. 


34 in 6Th'd. 


V4 


23 


1 


43 


450 


1 " 9 " 


i% 


33 


I 


30 


750 


1J^"12 


% 


42 


'A 


24 


950 


IV4 


t'e 


52 


K 


19 


1,200 


11/2 


H 


74 


,% 


13>2 


1,700 


1% 


t'e 


101 


i 


10 


2,300 


2 


?^ 


132 


1 


7K 


3,000 


214 


% 


167 


1 


6 


3,900 


2Vo 


13 
1 R 


207 


IJi 


5 


4,700 


23/4 


% 


250 


IM 


4 


5,700 


3 


1 


297 


1| 


sy. 


6,750 


31/4 


lA 


349 


2h 


2% 


7,900 


3V2 


1^ 


405 


2/0 


2H 


9,200 


334 


IH 


465 


2% 


2 1 


10,600 


4 


li^ 


529 


3^ 


li% 


12,000 


41/4 


1% 


597 


31 


IK 


13,500 


4V2 


l/e 


669 


4 


13^ 


15,250 


434 


1>^. 


746 


41/2 


1>^ 


16,900 


5 


1% 


826 


5 


li 


18,750 


51/2 


\% 


1000 


6 


1 


22,700 


534 


i}i 


1100 


Q% 




f^l 


25,000 


6 


1% 


1190 


Ih 




10 


27,000 


614 


2 


1291 


1% 




9i^„ 


29,300 


GV2 


2% 


1397 


H% 




81 


31,600 


7 


2% 


1620 


m 


S 71 


36,750 


7V2 


2% 


1860 


Hi 


g 6K 


42,200 


8 


2r% 


2116 


12/0 


t 5% 


48,000 


8V2 


2% 


2388 


14><^ 


• 


5 


54,200 


9 


2% 


2678 


' 161 




4K 


60,700 


91-2 


^% 


2983 


, 17i^o 




4 


67,700 


10 


3% 


3306 


1 19i 




^% 


75,000 



Tarred Hemp Cordage will weigh (about) 1-4 more. 
Hawser laid Rope will weigh 1-6 less. 



The Relative Strength of Manila to Sisal is about as 7 is to 5. 



120 



COAL. 



TABiyB OF am:erican coai,s 



COAL. 



KIND OF COAL. 



Pennsvlvania, Anthracite 



Kentucky, 

Illinois, 

Indiana, 



Maryland, 
Arkansas, 
Colorado, 

Texas, 
Wash. Ter., 
Pennsylvania, 



Cannel 

Connelsville 

Semi-Bituniincns. 

Stone's Gas 

Youghioglieny 

Brown 

Caking 

Cannel 



Per Cent of 
Ash. 



Lignite 

Bureau Co... 
Mercer Co.... 

Montauk 

Block 

Caking 

Cannel 

Cumberland 
Lignite 



Petroleum. 



3.49 
6.13 
2.90 

15.02 
6.50 

10.77 
5.00 
5 60 
9.50 
2.75 
2,00 

14.80 
7.00 
5.20 
5.60 
5.50 
2.50 
5.66 
6.00 

13.98 
5 00 
9.25 
4.50 
4.50 
3.40 



Theoretical Value. 



In Heat 
Units 
per lb. 



14.199 
13.535 
14.221 
13.143 
13.368 
13.155 
14.021 
14.265 
12.324 
14.391 
15.198 
13.360 

9.326 
13.025 
13.123 
12.659 
13.588 
14.146 
13.097 
12.226 

9.215 
13.562 
13.866 
12 962 
11 551 
20 746 



In Pounds 

of Water 

Evaporation 



14 70 
14.01 
14 72 
13.60 
13.84 
13.62 
14.51 
14.76 
12.75 
14 89 
16.76 
13.84 

9 65 
13.48 
13.58 
13.10 
14.38 
14.64 
13.56 
12.65 

9.54 
14.04 
14.35 
13.41 
11.96 
21 47 



WiEIGHT OF CHARCOAI,. 

(Per bushel of 2748 cubic inches.) 

Oak 21.38 

Oak and Pine mixed 19.64 

Pine 17.85 

Pine (light) 17.19 



COLUMNS. 



121 



SAFE IvOAD, IN TONS OF 2,000 lyBS. FOR CAST-IRON 
COI/UMNS WITH TURNED CAPITAI/S AND BASES. 



1 


OUTSIDE DIAMETEK, 


: OUTSIDE DIAMETER, 


1 OUTSIDE DIAMETER, 


OUTSIDE DIAMETER, 




3 inches. 




4 inches. 


5 inches. 

! 


6 inches. 


g 




Thickness 




Thickness 


Thickness 


Thickness 


z 




in inches. 




in inches. 


in inches. 


in inches. 


a 


^2 


% 


1 • 


'm 


V2 


H 


1 1 


|.« 


%\ 'a\ 1 


1^4 


M 


1 


1^ 


1% 


7 


12.8 


15.9 


17 2 




24.9 


32.9 


38.3 


41.7 


39.5 53 8 65.0 


73.3 


77.3 


95.5 


110 3 


122.1 


8 


10.9 


13 


14 


— 


21.7 


28,4 


33.0 


a5.8 


35.1 47.6 57.3 


64.4 


69.7 


85.^ 


98.7 


108.8 


9 


8.9 


10 7 


11 4 


.... 


19.0 


24 8 


28.7 


31.0 


31.3 42.3, 50.7 


56.8 


62. S 


77.1 


88.5 


97.3 


10 


7.5 


8.9 


9.6 




17.4 


22.0 


24.9 


26.3 


28 37. 7| 45.1 

1 


50.41 


56.9 


69.6 


79.6 


87.4 


11 


6.4 


7.6 


8.1 




14.8 


18,7 


21.1 


22 4 


25.2! 33.8' 40.3 


44.9 


51.6 


63.0 


71,9 


78.7 


12 


5.4 


6.6 


7.0 




12 7 


16.2 


18.2 


19 3 


22.7 30.51 36.2 


40.3] 


46.9 


57.2 


65.2 


71.2 


13 


4.8 


5.7 


6.1 




11.1 


14.1 


15.9 


16 8 


21.0 27.6 32.2 


aT.2 


42.9 


52.1 


59.3 


64.6 


14 


4.2 


5.0 


5.4 




9.8 


12.4 


14.0 


U 9 


18.5 24.3 28.3 


31.0 


39.3 


47.6 


54.1 


58.9 


15 


3.7 


4.5 


4.8 




8.7 


11.1 


12.5 


13.2 


16.5i 21.6 25.2 


27.6 


36.8 


43.9 


49.0 


52.6 


16 


3.4 


4.0 


4.3 


.... 


7.8 


9.9 


11.2 


11.8 


14.8 19.4 22.6 


24.7 


33.0 


39.4 


44.0 


47.2 


17 


3.0 


3.6 


3.9 




7.0 


8.9 


10 1 


10 7 


13.3, 17.5 20.4 


22.3 


29.8 


35.5 


39.7 


42.5 


18 


2.8 


3.3 


3.6 




6.4 


8.1 


9 1 


9 7 


12. If 15.91 18.5 


20.2' 


27.0 


32.2 


36.0 


38.6 


19 


2.5 


3.0 


3.2 




5.8 


7.4 


8.3 


88 


11.0: 14.5 


16 9 


18.4 


24.6 


29.4 


32.8 


35.2 


20 


2.3 


2.7 


2.9 


.... 


5.3 


6.8 


7.6 


8.1 


10 1 13.3 


15.4 


16.9 


22.6 


26.9 


30.1 


32.3 


21 


2.1 


2.5 


2.7 




4.9 


6.2 


7.0 


7.5 


9.3 12.2 


14.2 


15.5 


20.8 


24.8 


27.7 


29.7 


22 


2. 


2.3 


2.5 




4.6 


5.8 


6.5 


6.9 


8.6 11.3' 13.1 


14 4 


19 2 


22 9 


25.6 


27.4 


23 


1.8 


2.1 


2.3 




4.2 


5.3 


6.0 


6.4 


8.0 10.5 12.2 


13.3 


17.8 


21.2 


23.7 


25.4 


24 


l.V 


2.0 


2.1 




3.9 


5.0 


5.6 


-,.9 


7.4 9.7i 11.3 


12 4 


16 6 


19 7 


23.1 


23.7 


25 


1.6 


1.9 






3.7 


4.6 


5.2 


5.5 


6.9' 9.1! 10.6 


11.5 


15.4 


18.4 


20.6 


22.1 



f: 


OUTSIDE DIAMETEK, 


1 

OUTSIDE DIAMETER, 


OUTSIDE DIAMETER, 






7i 


ifhes. 






8 inches. 






9 inches, 




g 




Thickness 




i 


Thickness 






Thickness 








in inches. 






in inches. 






in inches. 




^ 


»4 ' 


1 


ni 


Vi 


% 


1 


m 


1/2 


u 


1 


V4 


1% 


8 
9 
10 


102.4 
93.6 
&5.6 

78.4 


128.7 
117.0 
106.7 
97.5 


1.50.7 
136.9 
124.6 
113.5 


169.4 
153.5 
139.3 
126.6 


128.3 

118.7 

109.8 

1 101.5 


162.6 
150 1 
138.5 
127.8 


193.0 
177.7 
163.6 
150.7 


219.5 
201.6 
185.2 
170.2 


154.8 
144.7 
135.0 
126.0 


197.7 
184.5 
171.8 
160.0 


236.6 
220.2 
204.7 
190.3 


271.4 
252.0 
233.9 
217.0 


11 
li 
13 
14 
15 


71.8 
66.0 
60.7 
56.0 
51.8 


89.2 
81.7 
75.1 
69.2 
63.9 


las.e 

94.8 
87 
80.0 
73.8 


115.3 
105.3 
96.5 

88.6 
81.6 


94.0 
87.0 
80.7 
75.0 
69.8 


118.0 
109.2 
101.1 
93.8 
87.1 


139.0 
128.2 
118.5 
109.8 
101.9 


156.7 
144.3 
133.2 
123.2 
114.2 


117.5 
109.6 
102.4 
95.7 
89.5 


149.0 
138.8 
129.4 
120.8 
112.9 


177.0 
164.5 
153.2 
142.8 
133.3 


201.4 
187.0 
173.9 
161.9 
150.9 


16 
17 
18 
19 
20 


48.1 
44.61 
42.0 
38.3! 
35. Ij 


59.2 
54.9 
50.9 
46.4 
42.5 


68.2 
63.2 
57.8 
52.7 
48.3 


75.4 
69.8 
63.0 
57.4 
52.6 


■ 65.0 
60.7 
56.8 
53.2 
51.1 


81.1 
75.7 
70.7 
66.2 
62.7 


94.7 
88.3 
82.4 
77.1 
72.1 


106.1 
98.7 
92.1 1 
86.1 ( 
79.5 


83.9 
78.7 
73.9 
69.6 
65.5 


105.7 
99.0 
92.9 
87.4 
82.3 


124.6 
116.7 
109.4 
102.7 
96.7 


140.9 
131.8 
123.5 
115.9 
108.9 


21 
23 

23 
24 
25 


32.3 

29.8 
27.7 
25.7 
24.0 


39.1 
36.2 
33.5 
31.2 
20.1 


44.5 
41.1 
38.1 
35.4 
33.1 


48.4 
44.7 
41.5 
38.6 
36.0 


47.0 
43.5 
40.3 
37.5 
35.0 


57.7 
53.3 
49.4 
46.0 
42.9 


66.4 
61.3 

56.8 
52.9 
49.3 


73.2 
67.6 
62.7 

58.3 
54.4 


61.8 
58.4 
55.9 
52.0 

48.5 


75.5 
73.2 
69.3 
64.4 
60.1 


91.0 
85.9 
80.4 
74.8 
69.8 


102.6 
96.7 
89.5 
83.3 
77.7 



The o^reat secret in smoke prevention is to have a hot fire with plenty of 
room and time to let all the gas burn before o^ettino- lower in temperature 
than a red heat (800 deg. Fahr.) and to fire in small quantities over a part 
of the grate at a time. 



122 



COLUMNS. 



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124 



COLUMNS. 



TABI,:^ OF BRl^AKING I^OADS, IN TONS, OF HOI^I^OW 
CYIvINDRICAI, WROUGHT IRON COI^UMNS. 



With flat ends, perfectly true and firmly fixed, and the load pressing equally on 
every part of the top. 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 



Thickness of Iron 14 Inch. 



External Diameter in Ins 

2 I 214 I 2V2 



Tons. Tons. \ Tons. Tons 



2% 



11.7 
11.2 
10.6 
9.9 
9.1 
8.3 
7.4 
6.7 
6.0 
5.4 
4.8 
4.3 
3.9 
3.5 
3.2 
2.9 
2.4 
2.0 



13.2 


14.8 


12.8 


14.5 


12.2 


13.9 


11.6 


13 3 


10.8 


12.5 


9.9 


11.6 


9.1 


10.8 


8.3 


9.9 


7.5 


9.1 


6.9 


8.4 


6.2 


7.7 


5.6 


7.0 


5.2 


6.5 


4.7 


6.0 


4.3 


5.5 


4.0 


5.1 


3.4 


4.4 


2.8 


3.7 



16.4 

16.1 

15.6 

15.0 

14.2 

13.4 

12.6 

11.7 

10.8 

10.1 

9.3 

8.6 

8.0 

7.4 

6.9 

6.4 

5.6 

4.7 



Tons. 



18.0 

17.8 

17.3 

16.7 

16.0 

15.2 

14.4 

13.5 

12.6 

11.8 

11.0 

10.2 

9.5 

8.9 

8.3 

7.7 

6.8 

5.8 



Thickness of Iron 14 Inch. 



External Diameter in Ins. 



I 21/4 



Tons. Touss. 



21.9 

21.1 

19.9 

18.6 

17.0 

15.4 

13.9 

12.5 

11.2 

10.0 

9.0 

8.1 

7.3 

6.6 

6.0 

5.5 

4.5 

3.8 



25.4 

24.3 

23.1 

21.8 

20.4 

18.8 

17.3 

15.6 

14.2 

13.0 

10.7 

10.6 

9.6 

8.8 

8.0 

7.3 

6.0 

5.1 



2^2 



Tons. 

28.3 
27.6 
26.4 
25.3 
23 5 
22.1 
20.5 
19 1 
17.5 
16.1 
15.7 
13.5 
12.4 
11.3 
10.4 
9.5 
8.0 
6.8 



Cfc 



234 


3 




Tons. 


Tons. 




31.4 


34.5 


1 


30.7 


33.9 


2 


29.7 


33.0 


3 


28.5 


31.9 


4 


27.3 


30.7 


5 


25.7 


29.2 


6 


23.8 


27.8 


7 


22.3 


25.9 


8 


20.6 


24.3 


9 


19.1 


22.7 


10 


17.6 


21.1 


11 


16.4 


19.6 


12 


15.1 


18.2 


13 


14.0 


17.0 


14 


12.9 


15.8 


15 


12.0 


14.6 


16 


10.3 


12.7 


18 


8.7 


11 


20 






1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
18 
20 



Thickness of Iron 14 Inch. 



External Diameter in Ins. 



3V2 


* 


41/2 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


40 


47 


53 


40 


47 


53 


39 


46 


52 


38 


45 


51 


37 


44 


50 


36 


43 


49 


34 


41 


47 


32 


40 


46 


30 


38 


44 


29 


37 


43 


27 


35 


41 


26 


33 


40 


24 


31 


38 


23 


30 


36 


21 


28 


34 


20 


27 


33 


18 


24 


30 


16 


21 


27 



Tons. ! Tons. 



60 


72 


60 


72 


59 


71 


58 


71 


57 


70 


56 


69 


54 


68 


53 


67 


51 


65 


50 


64 


48 


62 


46 


61 


44 


59 


43 


57 


41 


55 


40 


54 


37 


50 


34 1 


47 



Thickness of Iron 14 Inch. 



External Diameter in Ins. 



7 


8 


9 


10 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 




166 


189 


214 


238 


163 


186 


212 


237 


158 


184 


210 


235 


154 


181 


207 


232 


149 


176 


203 


228 


143 


171 


199 


224 


137 


165 


194 


219 


131 


160 


187 


213 


124 


153 


180 


207 


117 1 


145 


173 


201 



Tons 



290 
289 
288 
284 
280 
276 
272 
268 
263 
257 



O « 



2 

4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 



The breaking loads for less thickness 
may safely be assumed to diminish at 
the same rate as the thickness. 

Wrought iron columns shorten at the 
average rate of about Ys inch in 30 feet, 
under loads of 4 tons per square inch of 
metal cross-section ; and cast iron ones 

average about twice as much. 

For lengths up to about 25 times the diameter, cast iron columns are stronger 
than wrought iron ones; but for longer lengths wrought iron are the stronger. 
In fixing a column it is important to equalize the pressure over every part of the 
top and bottom of it. 



CHORDS. 



125 



TABIvE OP I<ONG CHORDS. 



DEGREE OF 
CURVE. 


200 FEET. 


300 FEET. 


400 FEET. 


500 FEET. 


600 FEET. 


o / 












10 


200.000 


299.999 


399.998 


499.996 


599.993 


20 


199.999 


.997 


.992 


.983 


.970 


30 


.998 


.992 


.981 


.962 


.933 


40 


.997 


.986 


.966 


.932 


.882 


50 


.995 


.979 


.947 


.894 


.815 


1 


199.992 


299.978 


399.924 


499.848 


599.733 


10 


.990 


.959 


.896 


.793 


.637 


20 


.986 


.946 


.865 


.729 


.526 


30 


.983 


.932 


.829 


.657 


.401 


40 


.979 


.915 


.789 


.577 


.260 


50 


.974 


.898 


.744 


.488 


.105 


2 


199.970 


299.878 


399.695 


499.391 


598.934 


10 


.964 


.857 


.643 


.285 


.750 


20 


.959 


.834 


.586 


.171 


.550 


30 


.952 


.810 


.524 


.049 


.336 


40 


.946 


.783 


.459 


498.918 


.106 


50 


.939 


.756 


.389 


.778 


597.862 


3 


199.931 


299.726 


399.315 


498.630 


597.604 


10 


.924 


.695 


.237 


.474 


.331 


20 


.915 


.662 


.154 


.309 


.043 


30 


.907 


.627 


.068 


.136 


596.740 


40 


.898 


.591 


398.977 


497.955 


.423 


50 


.888 


.553 


.882 


.765 


.091 


4 


199.878 


299.513 


398.782 


497.566 


595.744 


10 


.868 


.471 


.679 


.360 


.383 


20 


.857 


.428 


.571 


.145 


.007 


30 


.846 


.383 


.459 


496.921 


594.617 


40 


.834 


.337 


.343 


.689 


.212 


50 


.822 


.289 


.223 


.449 


593.792 


5 


199.810 


299.239 


398.099 


496.200 


593.358 


10 


.797 


.187 


397.970 


495.944 


592.909 


20 


.783 


.134 


.837 


.678 


.446 


30 


.770 


.079 


.700 


.405 


591.968 


40 


.756 


.023 


.559 


.123 


.476 


50 


.741 


298.964 


.413 


494.832 


590.970 


6 


199.726 


298.904 


397.264 


494.534 


590.449 


10 


.710 


.843 


.110 


.227 


589.914 


20 


.695 


.779 


396.952 


493.912 


.364 


30 


.678 


.714 


.790 


.588 


588.800 


40 


.662 


.648 


.623 


.257 


.221 


50 


.644 


.579 


.453 


492.917 


587.028 


7 


199.627 


298.509 


396.278 


492.568 


587.021 


10 


.609 


.438 


.099 


.212 


586.400 


20 


.591 


.364 


395.916 


491.847 


585.765 


30 


.572 


.289 


.729 


.474 


.115 


40 


.553 


.212 


.538 


.093 


584.451 


50 


.533 


.134 


.342 


490.704 


583.773 


8 


.513 


298.054 


395.142 


490.306 


583.081 



126 



CtfRYES. 



Radii, Ordinates and Deflections of Railroad CMrves;. 



10 
20 
30 
40 
50 

1 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 

2 
lO 
20 
30 
40 
50 

3 O 
lO 
20 
30 
40 
50 

4 
lO 
20 
30 

50 

5 O 
lO 
20 
30 
40 
50 

6 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 

7 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 

8 O 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 



34377.48 

17188.76 

11459.19 

8594.41 

6875.55 

5729.65 

4911.15 

4297.28 

3819.83 

3437.87 

3125.36 

2864.93 

2644.58 

2455.70 

2292.01 

2148.79 

2022.41 

1910.08 

1809.57 

1719.12 

1637.28 

1562.88 

1494.95 

1432.69 

1375.40 

1322.53 

1273.57 

1228.11 

1185.78 

1146.28 

1109.33 

1074.68 

1042.14 

1011.51 

982.64 

955.37 

929.57 

905.13 

881.95 

859 92 

838.97 

819.02 

800.00 

781.84 

764.49 

747.89 

732 01 

716.78 

702.18 

688.16 

674.69 

661.74 

649.27 



ORDINATES. 



i2y2 



.016 
.032 
.048 
.064 
.080 
.095 
.111 
.127 
.143 
.159 
.175 
.191 
.207 
.223 
.239 
.255 
.270 
.286 
.302 
.318 
.334 
.350 
366 
.382 
.398 
.414 
.430 
.446 
.462 
.477 
.493 
.509 
.525 
.541 
.557 
.573 
.589 
.605 
.621 
.637 
.653 
.669 
.685 
.701 
.717 
.733 
.748 
.764 
.780 
.796 
.812 
.828 
.844 



25 



.027 

.055 

.082 

.109 

.136 

.164 

.191 

218 

.245 

.273 

.300 

.327 

.355 

.382 

.409 

.436 

.464 

.491 

.518 

.545 

.573 

.600 

.627 

.655 

.682 

.709 

.736 

.764 

.791 

.818 

.846 

.873 

.900 

.928 

.955 

.982 

1.009 

1.037 

1.064 

1.091 

1.118 

1.146 

1.173 

1.200 

1.228 

1.255 

1.283 

1.310 

1.337 

1.365 

1.392 

1.419 

1.447 



37y2 



.034 

.068 

.102 

.136 

.170 

.205 

.239 

.273 

.307 

.341 

.375 

.409 

.443 

.477 

.511 

.545 

.580 

614 

.648 

.682 

.716 

.750 

.784 

.318 

352 

.886 

.921 

.955 

,989 

1.023 

1.057 

1.091 

1.125 

1.159 

1.193 

1.228 

1.262 

1.296 

1.330 

1.364 

1.398 

1.432 

1.466 

1.501 

1.535 

1.569 

1.603 

1.637 

1.671 

1.705 

1.739 

1.774 

1 808 



50 



.036 

.073 

.109 

.145 

182 

218 

.255 

.291 

.327 

.364 

.400 

.436 

.473 

.509 

.545 

.582 

.618 

.655 

.691 

.727 

.764 

.800 

.836 

.873 

.909 

.945 

.982 

1.018 

1.055 

1.091 

1.127 

1.164 

1.200 

1.237 

1.273 

1.309 

1.346 

1.382 

1.418 

1.455 

1.491 

1.528 

1.564 

1.600 

1.637 

1.673 

1.710 

1.746 

1.782 

1.819 

1.855 

1.892 

1.928 



TANGENT- 
DEFLEC- 
TION. 



.145 
.291 
.436 
.582 
.527 
.573 
1.018 
1.164 
1.309 
1.454 
1.600 
1.745 
1.891 
2.036 
2.181 
2.327 
2.472 
2.618 
2.763 
2.908 
3.054 
3.199 
3.345 
3.490 
3.635 
3.781 
3.926 
4.071 
4.217 
4.362 
4.507 
4.653 
4.798 
4.943 
5.088 
5.234 
5.379 
5.524 
5.669 
5.814 
5,960 
6.105 
6.250 
6.395 
6.540 
6.685 
6.831 
6.976 
7.121 
7.266 
7.411 
7.566 
7.701 



CHORD DE- 
FLECTION. 



291 

.582 

.873 

1.164 

1.454 

1.745 

2 036 

2.327 

2.618 

2 909 

3.200 

3.490' 

3,781 

4.072 

4.363 

4.654 

4.945 

5.235 

5.526 

5.817 

6.108; 

6.398: 

6.6891 

6.980t 

7.271 

7.561 

7.852 

8.143 

8.433 

8.724 

9.014 

9.305 

9.596 

9.886 

10.177 

10.467 

10.758 

11.048 

11.339 

11.629 

11.919 

12.210 

12.500 

12.790 

13.081 

13.371 

13.661 

13.951 

14.241 

14.532 

14.822 

15.112 

15.402; 



RAIIyROAD CURV:BS. 



ELEVATION OF THE OUTER RAIL OF CURVES. 



DEGREE 




SPEED OF TRAIN IN 


MILES PER 


HOUR. 




OF 
CURVE. 


15 


20 


25 


30 


40 


50 


1 


.012 


.022 


.034 


.049 


.088 


.137 


2 


.025 


.044 


.068 


.099 


.175 


.274 


3 


.037 


.066 


.10c 


.148 


.263 


.411 


4 


.049 


.088 


.137 


.197 


.361 


.548 


5 


.062 


.110 


.171 


.247 


.438 


.685 


6 


.074 


.131 


.205 


.296 


.526 


.822 


7 


.086 


,153 


.240 


.345 


.613 


.958 


8 


.099 


.175 


.274 


.394 


.701 


1.095 


9 


.111 


.197 


.308 


.443 


.788 


1.232 


10 


.123 


.219 


.342 


.493 


.876 


1.368 



CHANNELS. 



127 



chann:ei/ bars. 





WEIGHT 


AREA OP 


THICKNESS 


WIDTH OF 


DESIGNATION. 


PER FOOT. 


SECTION. 


OF WEB. 


FLANGE. 




Pounds. 


Square Inch. 


1 Inches. 


Inches. 


15^' Light, 
15^^ Heavy, 


40. 
60. 


12.00 
18.00 


.525 
i .925 


3.53 
3.93 


12" One weight, 
12" Light, 
12'^ Heavv, 
12" Light, 
12" Heavy, 


20. 

22.5 

30. 

30. 

50. 


6.00 
6.75 
9.00 
9.00 
15.00 


.318 
1 .324 
.512 
.457 
.957 


3.01 
3.01 
3.20 
2.71 
3.21 


10" One weight, 
10'^ Light, 
10'^ Heavv, 
10'^ Light, 
10'^ Heavy, 


16. 

17.5 

30. 

20. 

35. 


4.80 
5.25 
9.00 
6.00 
10.50 


.329 
.300 
.675 
.305 
.755 


2.52 
2.43 
2.80 
2.50 
3.01 


9'^ One weight, 
9" Light, 
9" Heavy, 


14.5 

18. 

30. 


4.35 
5.40 
9.00 


.316 
.305 
.705 


2.50 
2.43 
2.83 


8" Light, 
8" Heavy, 
8" Light, 
8" Heavy, 


12.5 
15 5 
16. 

28. 


3.75 
4.65 
4.80 
8.40 


.264 
.376 
.303 
.753 


2.01 
2.13 
2.30 
2.75 


7" Light, 
7" Heavy, 
7" Light. 
7" Heavy, 


10.5 
13.5 
14. 
20. 


3.15 
4.05 
4.20 
6.00 


.247 
.375 
.296 
.554 


2.00 
2.13 
2.30 
2.55 


6" Light, 
6" Heavv, 
6" Light, 
6" Heav3', 


7.5 
9.5 

10. 

16. 


2.25 
2.85 
3.00 
4.80 


.196 
.296 
.227 
.527 


1.76 
1.86 
1.98 

2.28 


5" Light, 
5" Heavy, 
5" Light, 
5" Heavy, 


6.5 
8.5 
9. 
14. 


1.95 
2.55 
2.70 
4.20 


.219 
.339 
.245 
.545 


1.66 
1.78 
1.93 
2.23 


4" Light, 
4" Heavv, 
4" Light, 
4" Heavy, 


6. 
7. 
7. 
9. 


1.80 
2.10 
2.10 
2.70 


.246 
.321 
.244 
.394 


1.62 
1.70 
1.74 
1.89 


3'' Light, 
3^^ Heavy, 


5. 
6. 


1.50 
1.80 


.199 
.299 


1.51 
1.61 



128 CEMENT. 



HYDRAUIvIC C:EMENT. 

Trautwine defines hydraulic cement as follows: Burnt stone finely 
ground, and possessing the property of hardening under water. 

Hydraulic cements are both artificial and natural. The former are em- 
braced under the name of " Portland Cement," while the latter are gener- 
ally known under the name of "Louisville Cement." 

The composition of English Portland cement averages as follows: 

Lime 59.47 

Soluble Silica 23.63 

Insoluble. . 1.17 

Alumina and Ferric Oxide 10.87 

Carbonic Anhydride 1.00 

Sulphuric Anhydride 1.65 

Alkalies, moisture, etc 2.21 

100.00 
An imperial bushel of best cement, freshly ground, passing through an 
80 mesh sieve and leaving 10 per cent, residue, weighs 110 lbs. 
20 " ' " " 116 " 

25 " " " 121 " 

35 " " " 123 " 

All cement increases in bulk with age, therefore the weight per bushel 
becomes proportionately lighter. 

An imperial bushel of cement, which weighed when 

One day old 117 reweighed. 

One month later 113 

Two months later 108 

Twelve months later 103 " 

When weight per bushel is specified it can only be ascertained by weigh- 
ing the whole bushel, to weigh a given part and then multiply will not give 
a correct result. As fineness of grinding is a most important factor in the 
strength of concrete, the following degrees of fineness should be at least 
required: 

For ordinary purposes to leave under 10 per cent, residue on 2,500 mesh 
sieve. 

For special work to leave under 10 per cent, residue on 6,500 mesh 
sieve. 

The London Board of Works requires not more than 20 per cent, of 
residue should be left on a sieve of 5,766 holes to the square inch. 
The specific gravity of best Portland cement is never below 3.02. 
A barrel of Portland cement weighs on average 400 pounds, and con- 
tains about 3^ bushels, or, measured loose, 4.25 cubic feet. 

Average Analysis of American Portland Cement. 

Silica 20.75 per cent. 

Alumina f -^^ ^q .i 

Oxide oflron \ 

Lime 62.25 

Magnesia 0.25 

Sulphuric Acid 25 

Potash 1.50 

Soda 75 

Oxide of Manganese , 0.20 " 

Water 0.26 

Carbonic Acid 0.21 



CEMENT. 129 



A barrel of American Portland cement weighs 400 lbs. gross, 385 lbs. 
net, nearly 41/4 cubic feet loose. 

1 cubic foot neat, loose, weighs about 92 lbs. 
1 cubic foot of concrete, dr\% weighs 150 to 160 lbs. 
1 barrel of American Portland cement of 400 lbs. has the capacity to 
cover when used with one barrel of sand: 

67 square feet, 1 inch thick. 
90 " " % " 
134 " " 1/2 " " 
When used with two barrels of sand: 

104 square feet, 1 inch thick. 

139 " " % " 
208 " " 1/2 " 

When used with 3 barrels of sand: 

140 square feet, 1 inch thick. 
187 " " % " 

280 " " 1/2 " 

Proportions for Mixing Concrete With American Portland 

Cement. 

BROKEN STONE UP TO 
CEMENT. SAND. 2" DIAMETER. 

1 part 2 parts 4 parts. 

1 " 3 " 6 " 

1 •' 4 " 8 " 

1 " 5 " 10 " 

1 " 6 " 12 " 

I,OUISVIIvI/B (NATURAIy) C:i5ME^NT. 



Analysis of l/ouisville Cement. 

PER CENT. 

Water 1.16 

Silica and Insoluble matter 21.10 

Alumina and Oxide of Iron 7.51 

Calcium Oxide 30.16 

Calcium Carbonate 25.42 

Magnesium Oxide 7.00 

Sulphate of Calcium 6 85 

Alkalies and loss 80 

100.00 



130 CEMENT. 

A barrel of Louisville cement weighs 265 lbs. net, averaging about 4^^ 
cubic feet, or the sixth part of a cubic yard, loose. 

A cubic foot of neat cement, loose, weighs 55 to 60 lbs. 

1 car load of American Portland cement means 100 barrels (40,000 lbs). 

A minimum car load means 24,000 lbs , or 60 barrels of 400 lbs. each. 

Or, 253 Burlap sacks of 95 lbs. each. 

Or, 253 paper sacks of 95 lbs. each. 

The addition of one ounce of salt for every degree of temperature less 
than 30 degrees Fahr. to a mixture of 18 gallons of water and one pound 
of salt, is supposed to keep mortar from freezing. 

A cubic foot of concrete (cement, sand and stone), dr\^ weighs 130 to 
160 pounds. 

A cubic foot of concrete, one part cement and two parts sand, by bulk, 
tamped solid, requires about 36 pounds of cement. 

A cubic foot of concrete, equal bulk of cement and sand, tamped solid, 
requires about 48 pounds cement. 

A car load of Louisville cement usually means 100 barrels in barrels, or 
the cement contained in 180 grain bags, or in 400 paper bags. 

The weight of a car load of cement in barrels, is 28,500 pounds; in 
grain bags, or paper sacks, 30,000 pounds. 

Concrete. 

Sand and gravel 8 parts. 

Common earth burnt and powdered 1 " 

Burnt cinders 1 " 

Unslacked hydraulic lime 1^^ " 

These materials are thoroughly beaten up together, their mixture giv- 
ing a concrete which sets almost immediately, and in a lew days becomes 
extremely hard and solid. 

Good concrete can be made from clean gravel and sand, river ballast, 
stone chippings, burnt clay, shingle, broken bricks, crushed flints, etc., ect., 
and the proportion generally adopted by engineers is one of Portland 
cement to eight of these or similar materials, technically termed the aggre- 
gate. 

Plastering and Stucco Work. 

One barrel of Portland cement will cover: 

38 square feet, 1 inch thick. 

56 " " % " " 

75 '• " V2 " " 
One barrel of Portland cement and one of sand will cover: 
76 square feet, 1 inch thick. 

100 " " % " " 

150 " " 1/2 •' " 
One barrel of Portland cement and two of sand will cover: 

112 square feet, 1 inch thick. 

150 " " % " " 

225 " " 1/2 " 



CEMENT. 



131 



Cement, Concrete and Brick Work. 





THICKNESS. 


CEMENT. 


IIN. 


3/i IN. 


V2IN. 




If yds. 

21/4 " 

31/2 " 


11/2 yds. 
3 

41/2 " 


21/4 yds. 

4V2 •* 

63/4 " 


1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover. 
1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover. 







THICKNESS 




CEMENT. 


llN. 


3^IN. 


1/2 IN. 


1 barrel of cement will cover 


38 feet. 
76 " 
112 " 


56 feet. 
100 " 
150 " 


75 feet. 


1 barrel of cement and 1 of sand will cover. 
1 barrel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 


150 " 
225 " 



Brickwork. 

114 barrels cement, 

3 barrels good sand will make sufficient good cement mortar to lay 
1,000 brick. 

Concrete. 

1 barrel of cement, 

2 barrels of clean, sharp sand, 

5 barrels broken stone, or hard burnt bricks, clean gravel, or shingle, 
will yield about 20 cubic feet. 

According to tests made with hydraulic cements, briquettes of pure 
Portland cement, unmixed wnth sand, gave a tensile strength of from 450 
to 560 pounds per square inch, after being 7 daj^s in water; and from 500 
to 600 pounds per sqare inch, after being 30 days in water. 

Natural cements under the same conditions gave a tensile strength of 
from 330 to 350 pounds per square inch. 

Cement for Repairing Broken Rocks, Minerals or Fossils. 

Take 2 ounces of clear gum arabic, I1/2 ounces of fine starch, 1/2 ounce 
white sugar. Pulverize the gum arabic and dissolve it in as much water as 
a laundress would use for the quantity of starch indicated. Dissolve the 
starch and sugar in the gum solution. 

Then cook the mixture in a vessel suspended in boiling water until the 
starch becomes clear. The cement should be as thick as tar and kept so. 
To keep from spoiling, drop in a lump of gum camphor, or a little oil of 
cloves or sassafras. 

Cement. 

For cementing iron railing tops, iron grating, etc., use a mixture com- 
posed of equal parts of sulphur and white lead, w^ith about one-sixth part 
of borax, the three being thoroughly mixed together. When it is to be ap- 
plied, wet the mixture with strong sulphuric acid, place a thin layer be- 
tween the parts and press them together. It will take about 5 days for the 
cement to become perfectly dry. 



132 



WROUGHT IRON I^AP WBI/DBD CASING. 



For Artesian, Salt and Oil Wells. 

TABLE OF STANDARD DIMENSIONS. 



Nominal 


Actual 


Approx. 


Nominal 


Actual 


Approx. 


Nominal 


Actual 


Approx. 


Internal 


External 


Weight 


Internal 


External 


Weigtit 


Internal 


External 


Weight 


Diameter. 


Diameter. 


per Foot. 


Diameter. 


Diameter. 


per Foot. 


Diameter. 


Diameter 


per Foot. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Pounds. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Pounds. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Pounds. 


IH 


1.75 


1.66 


314 


3.5 


4.27 


5 


5.25 


7.68 


12i 


2. 


1 91 


3^ 


3.75 


4.59 


5i\ 


5.5 


8.08 


2 


2.25 


8.23 


334 


4. 


5.38 


55I 


6. 


9.35 


2K 


2.5 


2.75 


4 


4.25 


5.50 


6^4 


6.625 


lO.OtJ 


21/2 


2.75 


304 


414 


4.5 


6.01 


^% 


7. 


12.44 


2M 


3. 


3.33 


414 


4.75 


6.5 


7% 


8. 


15.10 


3 


3.25 


3 95 


434 


5 


7.23 


8^ 


8.655 


16.15 



WEI/I/ CASING. 



Inserted Joint, and Uniform Inside Diameter. 



NOMINAL INSIDE 


ACTUAL OUTSIDE 


NOMINAL WEIGHT 


NO. OF THREADS 


DIAMETER. 


DIAMETER. 


PER FOOT. 


PER IN. OF SCREW. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 




2 


2y4 


2.23 


14 


2y4 


21/2 


2.75 


14 


2y2 


23/4 


3.00 


14 


2% 


3 


3.33 


14 


3 


3y4 


3.95 


14 


3y4 


3y2 


4.27 


14 


3V2 


334 


4.60 


14 


33/4 


4 


5.33 


14 


4 


4y4 


5.50 


14 


4y4 


4y2 


6.00 


14 


4y2 


4% 


6.50 


14 


43/4 


5 


7.25 


14 


5 


514 


7.66 


14 


5i% 


5y2 


8.08 


14 


5% 


6 


9.35 


14 


6y4 


6% 


10 06 


14 


6% 


7 


12 45 


14 


7y4 


7% 


13 50 


14 


7% 


8 


15.10 


iiy2 


8^4 


8% 


16.15 


iiy2 


8% 


9 


17.25 


iiy2 


9% 


10 


19 00 


iiy2 


103/8 


10% 


21 50 


iiy2 


10% 


11 


21.97 


iiy2 


11% 


12 


23.86 


iiy2 


i2y2 


13 


33.50 


11 y2 


i3y2 


14 


37.50 


iiy2 


I4y2 


15 


42.10 




i5y2 


16 


46.70 





CASTINGS— COMBUSTIBLES. 



133 



Shrinkage of Castings. 

Iron, small cylinders I'e int:h per foot. 

" pipes Vs 

" girders, beams, etc W in 15" 

" large cylinders, the contraction of diam-\ ,_„ ^^^^ 

eterattop /^® ^ 

'* large cylinders, the contraction of diam-\jL/, ,< << 

eter at bottom j^^ 

" large cylinders, contraction in length Vs" in 16'' 

Brass, thin Vs' in 9" 

thick Vs^inlO" 

Zinc tV i" a foot. 

Lead h'' " 

Copper tV " 

Bismuth.; 3^2'' " " 

Table of Composition of Combustibles. 





< 

8 


COKE. 


WOOD. 


PEAT. 




ELEMENTS. 


PERFECT- 
LY DRY. 


U 

p ^ 

« CO 




< 







< 

X 




.812 
.048 
.054 
.031 


.850 



510 408 


.930 


.580 
.060 
.310 


.464 


.8a0 


Hvdrogen 


.053 
.417 


.042 
.334 


.048 

94.8 


.150 


OxYS^^en 






Nitrogen and Sulphur 

Water 






i 




1 


2 00 






.200 
04.0 




Ashes 


.055 


.150 


.020 


016 


.070 


.050 












Total 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1.000 


1 000 


1.000 



Table of Conducting Power of Various Substances. 



SUBSTANCE. 


CONDUCT- 
ING 
POWER. 


SUBSTANCE. 


CONDUCT- 
ING 
POWER. 


Blotting^ paper 


.274 
.314 
.323 
.418 
.523 
.531 
.563 
.636 


Cork 


1.15 


Eiderd wn 


Coke, pulverized 

India rubber 


1.29 


Cotton or wood, any density 
Hemp canvas 


1.37 


Wood with fibre 


1.40 


Maho""any dust 


Plaster of Paris 


3.86 


Wood ashes 


Baked clay 


4.83 


Straw 


Glass 


6.6 




Stone 


13.68 


Wood, across fibre 


.83 







CALENDAR. 



A CAIviENDAR. 



For Ascertaining any Day of the Week for any Given Time 
Within the Present Century. 



TEARS 1801 TO 1900. 



1801 1807 181«jl829 1835 1846'1857 1863 1874! 1885i 1891 



1802 
1303 
1805 



1813 
1814 
1811 



1819 1830 1841:1847:1858 



1825 

1822 



1869 



187511886 1 



1806 
1809 



18r 



1823 



1831 11842 1 1853' 1859 



1833 1839 1850 1861 



1870 
1867 



1881 1 1887 

1878 1! 



1834 1845 1851 1862 1873 I879'l890 
1837,184311854 1865 1871 1882; 1893 1899 



1895 



1815 



1826 



1810 1821 1827 1838|1849jl855)l866jl877|1883|l894 1900 



To ascertain any day of the 
week in any year of the present 
century, first look in the table of 
years for the year required, and 
under the months are figs, which 
refer to the corresponding figs. 
at the head of the columns of 
days below. For example: To 
know what day of the week May 
4 will be on in the year 1872, in 
the table of leap years, it being 
a leap year, look for 1872, and 
in a parallel line, under May, is 
Fig. 3, which directs to col. 3, 
in which it will be seen that 
May 4 falls on Saturday. 



LEAP YEARS. 



1804 1832 
1808 1836 
1812 1840 
1816'l844 



1820 
1824 

1828 



1848 
1852 
1856 



18601888 
1864 1892 
1868 1893 
1872'.... 
1876 .... 
1880 ... 
1884 .... 



4 I 7 
2~l~5" 



5 1 



4 
2 

4 I 7 



3 I 6 

6 I ^ 

III 
2 I 5 



Monday 

Tuesday. . . 
Wednesday 
Thursday.. 

Friday 

Saturday. . . 

Sunday 

Monday 

Tuesday. . . 
Wed'sday... 
Thursday.. 

Friday 

Saturday . . . 
Sunday .... 
Monday — 

Tuesday 

Wed'sday.. 
Thursday.. 

Friday 

Saturday... 

Sunday 

Monday — 
Tuesday... 
Wed'sday. . 
Thursday.. 

Friday 

Saurday. ., 
Sunday. . . 

Monday 

Tuesday. . . 
Wed'sday. 



Tuesday . . 

Wed 

Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday. 



Monday. . . 
Tuesday . 

Wed 

Thursday. 
Friday..., 
Saturday. . 
Sunday . . . 
Monday. . . 
Tuesday.., 
Wed .... 
Thursday. 
Friday . . . 
Saturday. 
Sunday . . . 
Monday. . 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday 
Friday... 
Saturday. 
Sunday. . 
Monday. . 
Tuesday . 

Wed 

Thursday 



Wed'sday. 
Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday. . 
Sunday . . 
Monday . . 
Tuesday . . 

Wed. . 

Thursday. 
Friday ... 
Saturday. . 
Sunday . . . 
Monday... 
Tuesday.., 

Wed 

Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday., 
Sunday. . . 
Monday . . 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday 
Friday..., 
Saturday. 
Sunday . . 
Monday . 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday 
Friday . . . 



Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday.. 
Sunday.... 
Monday .. 
Tuesday... 

Wed 

Thursday. 
Friday. .. 
Saturday .. 
Sunday. ... 
Monday.. . 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday. 
Friday.... 
Saturday.. 
Sunday.. . 
Monday. .. 
Tuesday. . 

Wed 

Thursday. 
Friday. .. 
Saturday . . 
Sunday . . 
Monday. . 
Tuesday.., 

W(!d 

Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday . 



Friday 

Saturday. . 
Sunday . . . 
Monday... 
Tuesday. . , 
Wed , . . . . . 
Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday. . 
Sunday. . . 
Monday... 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday . 

Friday 

Saturday. . 
Sunday. . . 
Monday... 
Tuesday.. 

Wed 

Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday., 
Sunday . . . 
Monday. . . 
Tuesday . . 

Wed 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday. 
Sunday. . . 



Saturday. . 
Sunday..., 
Monday... 
Tuesday... 

Wed 

Thursday. 

Friday 

Saturday. . 
Sunday... 
Monday.. 
Tuesday.. 

Wtd 

Thursday 
Friday... 
Saturday. 
Sunday. . 
Monday.. 
Tuesday. 

Wed 

Thursday 
Friday... 
Saturday. 
Sunday . . 
Monday . 
Tuesday. . 

Wed 

Thursday 
Friday... 
Saturday. 
Sunday . . 
Monday. . 



Sunday 1 

Monday 2 

Tuesday ...3 

Wed 4 

Thursday.. 5 

Friday 6 

Saturday. ..7 

Sunday 8 

Monday 9 

Tuesday.. 10 

Wed 11 

Thursday. 12 
Friday.... 13 
Saturday.. 14 
Sunday ....lb 
Monday.. .16 
Tuesday.. 17 

Wed 18 

Thursday. 19 
Friday.... 20 
Saturday.. 21 
Sunday . . .22 
Monday... 23 
Tuesday. .24 

Wed 25 

Thursday. 26 
Friday... 27 
Saturday.. 28 
Sunday . . .29 
Monday . .HO 
Tuesday ..31 



CAR LOAD — DECIMALS. 



135 



70 bbls. Salt. 
70 bbls. Lime. 
90 bbls. Flour. 
60 bbls. Whiskey. 

6 cords Hard Wood. 
18 head Cattle. 



A Car lyoad is, say 

85 head Sheep. 

9M. ft. Boards (soft). 
17 M. ft. Siding. 
13 M. ft. Flooring. 
40 M. ft. Shingles. 
340 bush. Wheat. 



360 bush. Corn. 
680 bush. Oats. 
400 bush. Barley. 
360 bush. Seed. 
430 bush. Potatoes. 
1.000 bush. Bran. 



Table of Decimal Equivalents. 

8THS, 16THS, 32dS and 64THS OF AN INCH. 



8ths. 


#2 =.21875 


hl = 


.265625 


1/8= .125 


3% =.281 25 


il = 


.296875 


Vi= .25 


U= .34375 


e\ = 


.328125 


3/8 = .375 


fi=. 40625 


¥ = 


.359375 


V2= .50 


it= .46875 


§1 = 


.390625 


% = .625 


H = .53125 




.42187s 


% = .75 


i| = .59375 


2 9 


.453125 


7/8 = .875 


§1= .65625 


|i = 


.484375 




11= .71875 


if= 


.515625 


16ths. 


11 =.781 25 


II = 


.546875 




H=. 84375 


11 = 


.578125 


j»g=.0625 


2|=. 90625 




.609375 


,%= .1875 


U = .96875 


11 = 


.640625 


^^= .3125 




11 = 


.671875 


/«= .4375 




11= 


.703125 


1^6 = .5625 


64ths. 


11 = 


.734375 


11= .6875 
11 =.81 25 
i|= .9375 


eS=. 015625 
6^4 =.046875 
^^= .078125 


11 = 
Si= 
11= 


.765625 
796875 
.828125 


32ds. 


ii= .109375 


11 = 


.859375 


e%=. 140625 




.890625 


gi^=. 03125 


-i-t=. 171875 


11 = 


.9218 75 


^^== .09375 


If = .203125 


¥ = 


.953125 


3^= .15625 


ii= .234375 


§1 = 


.984375 



Stubs' Wire Gauge in Inches. 



No, 



1. 

3. 

7. 
11. 
16. 
21. 



.1^6 inch. 

.V4 



• Vs 



136 



DECIMALS. 



Table of Decimal iEquivalents of Millimeters and Fractions of 

Millimeters. 





iJo mm. = .0003937'^ 






MM. INCHES. 


MM. INCHES. 


MM. INCHES 


5^0 = .00079 


IB = .02047 


2 = 


.07874 


^% = .00157 


11 = .02126 


3 = 


.11811 


^0 = .00236 


§8 = .02205 


4 = 


.15748 


s% = .00315 


18 = .02283 


5 = 


.19685 


/o = .00394 


IB = .02362 


6 = 


.23622 


5% = .00472 


Ih = .02441 


7 = 


.27559 


Jq = .00551 


%l = .02520 


8 = 


.31496 


Jg = .00630 


i§ = .02598 


9 = 


.35433 


5»Q = .00709 


1* = .02677 


10 = 


.39370 


ig = .00787 


IS = .02756 


11 = 


.43307 


11- = .00866 


i§ = .02835 


12 = 


.47244 


U = .00945 


11 = .02913 


13 = 


.51181 


il = .01024 


1% = .02992 


14 = 


.55118 


i^ = .01102 


38 = .03071 


15 = 


.59055 


ig = .01181 


U = .03150 


16 = 


.62992 


i« = .01260 


%h = .03228 


17 = 


.66929 


U = .01339 


|2 = .03307 


18 = 


.70866 


!§ = .01417 


U = .03386 


19 = 


.74803 


1% = .01496 


U = .03465 


20 = 


.78740 


18 = .01575 


|g = .03543 


21 = 


.82677 


U = .01654 


|« = .03622 


22 = 


.86614 


11 = .01732 


1-?, = .03701 


23 = 


.90551 


ig = .01811 


IB = .03780 


24 = 


.94488 


|4 = .01890 


IB = .03858 


25 = 


.98425 


IB = .01969 


1 = .03937 


26 = 


1.02362 



10 mm. = 1 Centimeter = 0.3937 inches. 
10 cm. = 1 Decimeter = 3.937 
10 dm. = 1 Meter = 39.37 

25.4 mm. = 1 English Inch. 



Wrought or malleable iron has been known from a period which ante- 
dates history, and by several nations. 

A wedge of iron has been found in the Great Pyramid ; hence it was 
known in the time of Moses 1500 B. C, and in the time of Cheops 3500 B. 
C, or still further back in the time of Menes 4400 B. C. 

Iron occurs in large deposits in the form of oxide, and constitutes an 
ingredient of nearly all rocks, soils and natural waters. 



DECIMALS. 



137 



Decimal Parts of a Foot for iEach 1-64 of an Inch. 



Inch. 


0" 


1" 


2" 


3" 


4" 


5" 


6" 7" 


8" 


9" 


1 10" 


11" 








.0833 


.1667 


.2500 


.3333 


.4167 


.5000 .5833 


.6667 


.7500 


.8333 


.9167 




.0013 
.0026 
.0039 
.0052 


.0846 
.0859 
.0872 
.0885 


.1680 
.ld93 
.1706 
.1719 


.2.513 
.2526 
.2539 
.2552 


.3346 
.3a59 
.3372 
.3385 


.4180 
.4193 
.4206 
.4219 


.5013 ' .5846 
.5026 .5859 
.5039 .5<S72 
.5052 1 .5885 


.6680 
.6693 
.6706 
.6719 


.7.513 
.7526 
.7539 
.7552 


.8346 
.8359 
.8372 
.8385 


•9180 
•9193 
•9206 
.9219 




.0065 
.0078 
.0091 
.0104 


.0898 
.0911 
.0924 
.0937 


.1732 
.1745 
.1758 
.1771 


.2565 
.2578 
.2.591 
.2604 


.3398 
.3411 
.3424 
.3437 


.4232 
.4245 

.4258 
.4271 


.5065 
.5078 
.5091 
.5104 


.5898 
.5911 
.5924 
.5937 


.6732 
.6745 
.6758 
.6771 


.7565 
.7578 
.7591 
.7604 


.8398 
.8411 
.8424 
.8437 


.9232 
.9245 
.9258 
.9271 


<* 


.0117 
.0130 
.0143 
.0156 


.0951 
.0964 
.0977 
.0990 


.1784 
.1797 
.1810 
.1823 


.2617 
.2630 
.2643 
.2656 


.3451 
.3464 
.3477 
.3490 


.4284 
.4297 
.4310 
.4323 


.5117 
.5130 
.5143 
.5156 


.5951 
.5964 
.5977 
.5990 


.8784 
.6797 
.6810 
.6823 


.7617 
.7630 
.7643 
.7656 


.8451 
.84&4 
.8477 
.8490 


.9284 
.9297 
,9310 
.9323 


^ 

4 


.0169 
.0182 
.0195 
.0208 


.1003 
.1016 
.1029 
.1042 


.1836 
.1849 
.1862 
.1875 


.2669 
.2682 
.2695 
.2708 


.3503 
.3516 
.3529 
.3542 


.4336 
.4349 
.4362 
.4375 


.5169 
.5182 
.5195 
.5208 


.6003 
.6016 
.6029 
.6042 


.6836 
.6849 
.6862 
.6875 


.7669 
.7682 
.7695 
.7708 


.8503 
.8516 
.8529 
.8542 


.9336 
.9349 
,9362 
.9375 


¥ 


.0221 
.0234 
.0247 
.0260 


.1055 
.1068 
.1081 
.1094 


.1888 
.1901 
.1914 
.1927 


.2721 
.2734 
.2747 
.2760 


.3.555 
.3568 
.8581 
.3594 


.4388 
.4401 
.4414 
.4427 


.5221 
.5234 
.5247 
.5260 


.6055 
.6068 
.6081 
.6094 


.6888 
.6901 
.6914 
.6927 


.7721 
.77a4 
.7747 
.7760 


.8555 
8568 
.8571 
.8594 


.9388 
.9401 
.9414 
.9427 


! 


.0273 
.0286 
.0299 
.0312 


.1107 
.1120 
.1133 
.1146 


.1940 
.1953 
.1966 
.1979 


.2773 
.2786 
.2799 

.2812 


.3607 
.3620 
.3633 
.3646 


.4440 
.4453 
.4466 
.4479 


.5273 
.5286 
.5299 
.5312 


.6107 
.6120 
.6133 
.6146 


.6940 
.6953 
.6966 
.6979 


.7773 
.7786 
.7799 

.7812 


.8607 
.8620 
.8633 
.8646 


.9440 
.9453 
.9466 
.9479 


i 


.0326 
.0339 
.0352 
.0365 


.1159 
.1172 
.1185 
.1198 


.1992 
.2005 
.2018 
.2031 


.2S26 
.2839 
.2852 
.2865 


.3659 
.3672 
.3685 
.3698 


.4492 
.4505 
.4518 
.4531 


.5326 
.5339 
.5352 
.5365 


.6159 
.6172 
.6185 
.6198 


.6992 
.7005 
.7018 
.7031 


.7826 
.7839 
.7852 
.7865 


.8659 
.8672 
.8685 
.8698 


.9492 
.9505 
.9518 
.9531 


II 

i! 


.0378 
.0391 
,0404 
.0417 


.1211 
.1224 
.1237 
.1250 


.2044 
.2057 
.2070 
.2083 


.2878 
.2891 
.^4904: 
.2917 


.3711 
.3724 
.3737 
.3750 


.4544 
.4557 
.4570 
.4583 


.5378 
.5391 
.5404 
.5417 


.6211 
.6224 
.6237 
.6250 


.7044 
.7057 
.7070 
.7083 


.7878 
.7891 
.7904 
.7917 


.8711 
.8724 
.8737 
.8750 


.9544 
.9557 
.9570 
.9583 


i 


.0430 
.0443 
.0456 
.0469 


.1263 
.1276 
.1289 
.1302 


.2096 
.2109 
.2122 
.2135 


.2930 
.2943 
.2956 
.2989 


.3763 
.3776 

.3789 
.3802 


.4596 
.4609 
.4622 
.4635 


.5430 
.5443 
.5456 
.5469 


.6263 
.6276 
.6289 
.6302 


.7096 
.7109 
.7122 
.7135 


.7930 
.7943 
.7956 
.7969 


.8763 

.8776 
.8789 
.8802 


.9596 
.9609 
.9622 
.9635 


^1 


.0482 
.0495 

.0508 
.0521 


.1315 
.1328 
.1341 
.1354 


.2148 
.2161 
.2174 
.2188 


.2982 
.2995 
.3008 
.3021 


.3815 
.3828 
.3841 
.3854 


.4648 
.4661 
.4674 

.4688 


.5482 
.5495 
.5508 
.5571 


.6315 
.6328 
.6341 
.6354 


.7148 
.7161 
.7174 

.7188 


.7982 
.7995 
.8008 
.8021 


.8815 
.8828 
.8841 
.8854 


.9648 
.9661 
.9674 
.9688 


If 
11 


.0534 
.0547 
.0560 
.0573 


.1367 
.1380 
.1393 
.1406 


.2201 
.2214 
.22-27 
.2-^40 


.3034 
.3047 
.3060 
.3073 


.3867 
.3880 
.3893 
.3906 


.4701 
.4714 
.4727 
.4740 


.5534 
.5.547 
..5.560 
.5573 


.6367 
.6380 
.6393 
.6406 


.7201 
.7214 
.7227 
.7240 


•8034 
.8047 
.8060 
8073 


.8867 
.8880 
.8893 
.8906 


.9701 
.9714 
.9727 
.9740 


II 

f 


.0586 
.0599 
.0612 
.0625 


.1419 
.1432 
.1445 
.1458 


.2253 
.2266 
.2279 
.2292 


.3086 
.3099 
.3112 
.3125 


.3919 
.3932 
.3945 
.39.58 


.4753 
.4766 
.4779 
.4792 


.5586 
.5599 
.5612 
.5625 


.6419 
.6432 
.6445 
.6458 


.7253 
.7266 
.7279 
.7292 


.8086 
.8099 
.8112 
.8125 


.8919 
.8932 
.8945 
.8958 


.9753 
.9766 

.9779 
.9792 


!! 


.0638 
.0651 
.0664 
.0677 


.1471 
.1484 
.1497 
.1510 


.2305 
.2318 
.2331 
.2344 


.3138 
.3151 
.3164 
.3177 


.3971 
.3984 
.3997 
.4010 


.4805 
.4818 
.4831 
.4844 


.5638 
.5651 
.5664 
.5677 


.6471 
.6484 
.6497 
.5510 


.7305 
.7318 
.7331 
.7344 


.8138 
.8151 
.8164 
.8177 


.8971 
.8984 
.8997 
.9010 


.9805 
.9818 
.9831 
.9844 


If 

1 


.0690 
.0703 
.0716 
.0729 


.1523 
.1.536 
.1.549 
.1562 


.2357 
.2370 
.2383 
.2396 


.3190 
..3203 
.3216 
.3229 


.4023 
.4036 I 
.4049 1 
.4062 


.4857 
.4870; 
.4883 
.4896' 


.5690 
.5703 
.5716 
.5729 


.6523 
.&536 
.6549 
.6562 


.7357 
.7370 
.7383 
.7396 


.8190 
.8203 
.8216 

.8229 


.9023 
.9036 
.9049 
.9062 


.9857 
.9870 
.9883 
.9896 


If 


.0742 
.0755 
.0768 
.0781 


.1576 
.1589 
.1602 
.1615 


.2409 
.2422 
.2435 

.2548 


.3242 
.32.55 
.3268 
.3281 


.4076 
.4089 
.4102 
.4115 


.4909 .5742 .6576 
.4922 : .5755 ! .6589 
.4935 .5768 .6602 
.4948 .5781 .6615 


.7409 
.7422 
.7435 
.7448 


.8242 

.8255 
.8268 
.8281 


.9076 
.9089 
.9102 
.9115 


.9909 
.9922 
.9935 
.9948 


11 


.0794 
.0807 
.0820 


.1628 
.1641 
.1654 


.2461 
.2474 
.2487 


.3294 
.3307 
.3320 


.4128 
.4141 
.4154 


.4961 .5794 .6628 
.49:4 .5807 .6641 
.4987 .5820 , .6654 


.7461 
.7474 

.7«r 


.8294 
.8307 
.8320 


.9128 
.9141 
.9154 


.9961 
.9974 
.9987 
1.0000 



To obtain the foot dpcimal fo • an inch and fraction of an inch, add together the corre- 
sponding decimals, thus, for 7J3 inches : 

7 inches 5833 

hi .0169 

7i| 6002 



138 



DRILLS. 



Sizes of Crescent Special Polished Drill Rods and Wire. 

COMPARE GAUGE WITH EXACT SIZES GIVEN IN THOUSANDTHS OF AN INCH. 





Sizes in 




Sizes in 




Sizes in 




Sizes in 


Nos. 


Decimals of 


Nos. 


Decimals of 


Nos 


Decimals of 




Decimals of 




1 Inch. 




1 Inch. 




1 Inch. 




1 Inch. 


1 


0.228 


16 


0.177 


31 


0.120 


46 


0.080 


2 


0.221 


17 


0.173 


32 


0.116 


47 


0.079 


3 


0.213 


18 


0.170 


33 


0.113 


48 


0.076 


4 


0.209 


19 


0.166 


34 


0.111 


49 


0.073 


5 


0.206 


20 


0.161 


35 


0.110 


50 


0.070 


6 


204 


21 


0.159 


36 


0.106 


51 


0.067 


7 


0,201 


22 


0.156 


37 


0.104 


52 


0.064 


8 


0.199 


23 


0.154 


38 


0.101 


53 


0.060 


9 


0.196 


24 


0.152 


39 


0.100 


54 


0.054 


10 


194 


25 


0.150 


40 


0.098 


55 


0.052 


11 


0.191 


26 


0.148 


41 


0.096 


56 


0.047 


12 


188 


27 


0.145 


42 


094 


57 


044 


13 


185 


28 


0.141 


43 


0.089 


58 


0.042 


14 


0.182 


29 


0.136 


44 


086 


59 


041 


15 


0.180 


30 


0.129 


45 


082 


60 


040 



LETTER SIZES OF WIRES. 



A 


0.234 


H 


266 





0.316 


U 


368 


B 


0.238 


1 


0.272 


P 


323 


V 


377 


C 


0.242 


.1 


277 


Q 


0.332 


W 


0.386 


D 


0.246 


K 


0.281 


R 


0.339 


X 


397 


K 


0.250 


L 


0.290 


s 


0.348 


Y 


0.404 


F 


0.257 


M 


295 


T 


358 


Z 


0.413 


G 


0.261 


N 


0.302 











The CorrkIvATION of Forces.— Of the various forms of energy exist- 
ing in nature, any one maybe transformed into any other, the one form 
appearing as the other disappears. This is what is meant by "the correla- 
tion of forces." Thus the rotary power of a wheel, if applied to turn a 
magnet, is converted into electricity; and this electricity, if employed to 
drive a wheel, is changed back into rotary power. 



139 



Twist Drills. 



TAP DRILLS. 



The following table, showing the different sizes ol drills that should be 
used when a full thread is to be tapped in a hole, is practically correct. 











WII2.1S8R 


^JftaUL'TUR 


•DTAMHTEK 


NO. TMnccBiKs ' 


DRILL FOR V THREAD. 


u s. s. 


WHITWORTH 


OF TAP. 


TO INXH. 








THREAD. 


THREAD. 


Ya. 


16 18 20 


#2 


#2 


?l 


1^6 


x\ 


3% 


16 18 20 


1^6 


^4 


if 






h 


16 18 


.\ 


«l 




V4 


If 


% 


16 18 


1/4 


H 








14 16 18 


^ 


3^ 


/. 


3^2 


3\ 


S 


14 16 18 


If 


21 
64 


¥4 






14 16 


u 


hi 




H 


H 


^1 

3^ 


14 16 


H 


% 








12 13 14 


% 


if 


25 
64 


H 


% 


Vi 


12 13 14 




g^4 


II 






r\ 


12 14 


V 


29 
64 




/e 




II 


12 14 


II 


ai 

64 








% 


10 11 12 


M 




1/2 


1/2 


V2 


H 


10 11 12 


V2 


if 


H 






10 11 12 


if 


% 


% 


% 


% 


ft 


10 11 12 


% 


u 


ii 






Vs 


9 10 


If 


11 




II 


II 


11 


9 10 


If 


% 








1 


8 


if 






u 


ii 


l3^ 


8 


II 










IVs 


7 8 


If 


B 




H 


ii 


1#5 


7 8 


a 


M 








IK 


7 


I3S 






Uk 


Ix^. 


US 


7 


IrV 










1% 


6 


IVs 






U, 


t^ 


1^ 


6 


1/^ 










1V2 


6 


HI 






1/2 


i/i 


m 


6 


1/1. 


-' 








1% 


5 5K 


i'J 


1^ 




1% 


111 


Hh 


5 5'A 




iH 








1% 


5 






11/2 


iy2 


111 


5 


iX 










1% 


4^ 5 


IH 


IH 




lys 


III 


111 


4)^ 5 


i/« 


ll"6 








2 


43-^ 


Hi 






HI 


i|f 



Soldering Salt. 

Vessels may be tinned with this salt without previously cleansing their 
surfaces. It is made by dissolving one pound of zinc in muriatic acid, 
adding 22 ounces of salammoniac to the solution, and evaporating to dry- 
ness; the yield is 2/^ pounds of the double salt. To use it, the salt moist- 
ened with water, is brushed on the surface to be tinned, a little solder laid 
on here and there, and the surface heated until the solder fuses, when it 
flows wherever the salt was put, and unites with the metallic surface. 



140 



DRILLS. 



To Find the Si^e of Drill for Drilling a Hole to Tap a Full 
Standard V Thread. 

Rule: Multiply the number of threads per inch by 2 for the denomina- 
tor of a fraction, for which take three ior a numerator. 

Subtract this fraction from the diameter of the tap, and the remainder 
will be the diameter of drill required. 



Taper Shank Drills. 



DIAMETER. 


LENGTH. 


SOCKET 


DIAMETER. 


LENGTH. 


SOCKET. 


J€ 


6V8 


1 




13^ 


141/8 






9 
32 


61/4 






ll^6 


141/4 






1^ 


63/8 






IH 


143/8 








6V2 






\% 


141/2 






V 


63/4 






Ul 


14% 






M 


7 




y. 


1/6 


1434 






7 
16 


71/4 







1*1 


147/8 






il 


71/2 




HA 


13^ 


15 






K 


73/4 






lil 


151/8 






H 


8 






li% 


151/4 






1% 


8I/4 






111 


153/8 




g^ 


e 


8V2 






1% 


151/2 









83/4 
9 






IM 


15% 
153/4 




J^ 


32 
11 
16 

ft 

H 
11 

13 


91/4 
91/2 

9% 

97/8 
10 







111 

1% 
111 
IJI 


157/8 
16 

161/8 

1614 

163/8 






M 

if 


1014 
IOV2 
10% 






1% 
lit 

115 
-^16 

IH 


I61/2 

I6I/2 
I61/2 
I61/2 






n 


103^ 


"^ 




2 


I61/2 






u 


107/8 












1 


11 






23V 


161/2 


~ 




lA 


111/8 






2/2 


17 






lA 


11^4 




z 




2M 


17 






ls% 


111/2 






2 a 


17 




p 


\% 


1134 




_co 


2J€ ' 


171/2 




\i^ 


11% 






2t'6 


171/2 




" Oi 


• \h 


12 






2k 


18 






U^ 


121/8 






2/6 


I8V2 






1^ 


121/2 






2>^ 


19 







The only difference in the Morse and the American Taper Shank Drill, 
lies in the shanks. 

A set of Morse drills 14 to I14 requires 3 sockets. The same set Ameri- 
can Taper Shank Drills, requires 4 sockets. 

The two kinds of drills will not interchange in the sockets. 

American and Morse Taper Shank Drills above I14, have the same size 
shanks, same taper,, length, etc. 



141 



The shanks on drills smaller than Ig^ do not correspond. 
The American tapers about i% inch to the foot 
The Morse tapers about % inch to the loot. 

The American system of tapers was originated by the American Fire 
Arms Co., which went out of business many years ago. 

The Speed of Drills. 

A feed of one inch in from 95 to 125 revolutions is all that should be 
required, according to size of the drill. At these speeds it will be necessary 
to use plenty of oil, or a solution of oil, potash and water, when drilling 
steel, wrought or malleable iron. 



Diameter 


Speed 


Speed 


Speed 


Diameter 


Speed 


. Speed 


Speed 


of 


on 


on 


on 


of 


on ^ 


on 


on 


Drill. 


Steel. 


Iron. 


Brass. 


Drill. 


Steel. 


Iron 


Brass. 


1 

i R 


1150 


1750 


2000 


1 K 


45 


55 


100 


k 


575 


1000 


1200 


lii 


45 


50 


95 


1^6 


425 


700 


900 


1% 


40 


50 


90 


y^ 


285 


450 


800 


iH 


40 


50 


85 


16 


255 


400 


650 


\% 


40 


48 


80 




210 


325 


500 


Ul 


35 


48 


75 


/e 


170 


175 


425 


1% 


35 


45 


65 


X 


145 


220 


375 


ili 


30 


45 


60 


Tg 


135 


200 


335 


2 


30 


45 


55 


k 


125 


180 


315 


2l^6 


30 


43 


50 


J 6 


115 


160 


275 


2^ 


28 


40 


50 


% 


105 


130 


250 


2r'6- 


28 


40 


45 


il 


90 


120 


205 


2% 


28 


38 


45 


% 


80 


105 


175 


"^h 


26 


38 


45 


11 


70 


95 


150 


2% 


26 


35 


40 


1 


60 


90 


145 


2^6 


26 


35 


40 


liV 


60 


85 


135 


2X 


23 


32 


40 


IM 


55 


80 


130 


2i% 


23 


32 


35 


ii\ 


55 


75 


125 


2% 


23 


32 


35 


\% 


55 


70 


115 


2% 


20 


30 


35 


ii% 


50 


65 


110 


2% 


20 


30 


35 


\% 


50 


60 


105 


3 


20 


30 


35 


l/e 


45 


55 


100 











I/ength of Flute and Taper of Reamer for Drill Sockets. 



NO. OF RKAMER. 



LENGTH OF FLUTE. 



TAPER. 



Taper No. 1 , 
Taper No. 2, 
Taper No. 3, 
Taper No. 4, 
Taper No. 5, 
Taper No. 6, 



SVain 


.5415 by .365 


41/2 " 


.797 " .572 


5 " 


1.025 " .775 


51/2 " 


1.303 " 1.021 


5-/8 " 


1.786 " 1.480 


9 " 


2.597 " 2.139 



The taper of Morse, and C. T. D. Co.'s Drill Shanks is, approximately, 
% inch to the foot. 



142 



DISCOUNT Cables. 



DISCOUNT TABI,]^S. 

A discount of 50, 10 and 5 per cent, (erroneously supposed by many to 
equal 65 per cent.) is equivalent to 57Vi per cent., and the net remainder, 
42% per cent., is the multiplier with which to ascertain the net price. 



Discount Per C ent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


25 




.25 


.75 


32y2 




.325 


.675 


•' & 2V2 




.26875 


.73125 


" & 2y2 




.3419 


.6581 


2^2 & 


2y2 


.2870 


.7130 


2y2 


& 2y2 


.3583 


.6417 


21/2 


5 


.3053 


.6947 


2y2 


5 


.3748 


.6252 


2y2 


7y2 


.3236 


.6764 


2y2 


7y2 


.3912 


.6088 


2y2 


10 


.3419 


.6581 


2y2 


10 


.4077 


.5923 


5 




.2875 


.7125 


5 




.35875 


.64125 


5 


2y2 


.3053 


.6947 


5 


2y2 


.3748 


.6252 


5 


5 


3231 


.6769 


5 


5 


.3908 


.6092 


5 


7y2 


.3409 


.6591 


5 


7y2 


.4068 


.5932 


5 


10 


.35875 


.64125 


5 


10 


.4229 


.5771 


'^V2 




.30625 


,69375 


7y2 




.3756 


.6244 


m 


2V2 


.3236 


.6764 


7y2 


2y2 


.3912 


.6088 


74 


5 


.3409 


.6591 


7y2 


5 


.4068 


.5932 


7V2 


7y2 


.3583 


.6417 


7y2 


7y2 


.4226 


.5775 


W2 


10 


.3756 


.6244 


7y2 


10 


.4381 


.5619 


10^^ 




.3250 


.6750 


" 10 




.3925 


.6075 


10 


2y2 


.3419 


.6581 


10 


2y2 


.4077 


.5923 


10 


5 


.35875 


.64125 


10 


5 


.4229 


5771 


10 


7y2 


.3756 


.6244 


10 


7y2 


.4381 


.5619 


10 


10 


.3925 


6075 


10 


10 


.45325 


.54675 


27y2 




.275 


.725 


35 




.35 


.65 


2y2 




.2931 


.7069 


2y2 




.36625 


.63375 


21/2 


2y2 


.3108 


.6892 


2y2 


2y2 


.3821 


.6179 


2y2 


5 


.3285 


.6715 


2y2 


5 


.3979 


.6021 


2y2 


7y2 


.3461 


.6539 


2y2 


7y2 


.4138 


.5862 


2y2 


10 


.3638 


.6362 


2y2 


10 


.4296 


.5704 


5 




.31125 


.68875 


5 




.3825 


.6175 


5 


2y2 


.3285 


.6715 


5 


2y2 


.3979 


.6021 


5 


5 


.3457 


.6543 


5 


5 


.4134 


.5866 


5 


7V2 


.3629 


.6371 


5 


7y2 


.4288 


.5712 


5 


10 


.3801 


.6199 


5 


10 


.44425 


.55575 


" 7V2 




.3294 


.6706 


7y2 




.39875 


.60125 


" '^Vz 


2y2 


.3461 


.6539 


;; 7y2 


2y2 


.4138 


.5862 


" 7% 


5 


.3629 


.6371 




5 


.4288 


.5712 


" 7y2 


7y2 


.3797 


.6203 


" 7^2 


7y2 


.4438 


.5562 


7y2 


10 


.3964 


.6036 


7V2 


10 


.4589 


.5411 


" 10 




.3475 


.6525 


" 10 




.415 


.585 


10 


2y2 


.3638 


.6362 


10 


2y2 


.4296 


.5704 


10 


5 


.3801 


.6199 


10 


5 


.44425 


.55575 


10 


7y2 


.3965 


.6035 


10 


7y2 


.4589 


.5411 


10 


10 


.41275 


.58725 


10 


10 


.4735 


.5265 


30 




.30 


.70 


37y2 




.375 


.625 


2y2 




.3175 


.6825 


2y2 




.3906 


.6094 




2y2 


3346 


.6654 


21/2 


2yo 


.4059 


.5941 


" 2V^ 


5 


.3516 


.6484 


2^2 


5 


.4211 


.5789 


2y2 


7y2 


.3687 


.6313 


2y2 


7y2 


.4363 


.5637 


2y2 


10 


.38575 


.61425 


2y2 


10 


.4516 


.5484 


5 




.335 


.665 


5 




.40625 


.59375 


5 


2y2 


.3516 


.6484 


5 


2y2 


.4211 


.5789 


5 


5 


.36825 


.63175 


5 


5 


.4359 


.5641 


5 


7y2 


.3849 


.6151 


5 


7y2 


.4508 


.5492 


5 


10 


.4015 


.5985 


5 


10 


.4656 


.5344 


7y2 




.3525 


.6475 


.'! 7y2 




.4219 


.5781 




2y2 


.3687 


.6313 




2y2 


.4363 


.5637 


" 7% 


5 


3S49 


.6151 


" 7% 


5 


.4508 


.5492 


7y2 


7y2 


.4009 


.5991 


7y2 


7y2 


.4652 


.5348 


7y2 


10 


.41725 


.58275 


7y2 


10 


.4797 


.5203 


10 




.37 


.63 


10 




4375 


.5625 


10 


2y2 


.38575 


.61425 


10 


«V2 


.4516 


.5484 


10 


5 


4016 


.5985 


10 


5 


.4656 


.5344 


10 


7y2 


.41725 


.58275 


10 


7y2 


.4797 


.5203 


10 


10 


.433 


.567 


10 


10 


.49375 


.50625 



DISCOUNT TABLES. 



143 



DISCOUNT TABLES, 
(Continued.) 



Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


40 




.40 


.60 


47y2& 5 




.50125 


.49875 


" & 2V2 




.415 


.585 


5 & 


2y2 


.5137 


.4863 


2y2 & 


2y2 


.4296 


.5704 


5 


5 


.5262 


.4738 


2V2 


5 


.44425 


.55575 


5 


7y2 


.5386 


.4614 


2y2 


7y2 


.4589 


.5411 


5 


10 


.5511 


.4489 


2V2 


10 


.4735 


.5265 


7y2 




.5144 


.4856 


5 




.46 


.57 


7y2 


2y2 


.5265 


.4735 


5 


2y2 


.44425 


.55575 


7y2 


5 


.5387 


.4613 


5 


5 


.4585 


.5415 


7y2 


7y2 


.5508 


.4492 


5 


7y2 


.47275 


.52725 


7y2 


10 


.5629 


.4371 


5 


10 


.487 


.513 


" 10 




.5275 


.4725 


7% 




.445 


.555 


10 


2y2 


.5393 


.4607 


7y2 


2y2 


.4589 


.5411 


10 


5 


.5511 


.4489 


7^2 


5 


.47275 


.52725 


10 


7y2 


.5629 


.4371 


7V2 


7y2 


.4866 


.5134 


10 


10 


.57475 


.42525 


7y2 


10 


.5005 


.4995 










10 




.46 


.54 


50 




.50 


.40 


10 


2y2 


.4735 


.5265 


2y2 




.5125 


.4875 


10 


5 


.487 


.513 


2y2 


2y2 


.5247 


.4753 


10 


7y2 


.5005 


.4995 


2y2 


5 


.5369 


.4631 


10 


10 


.524 


.486 


2y2 


7y2 


.5491 


.4509 










2y2 


10 


.56125 


.43875 


42y2 




.425 


.575 


5 




.525 


.475 


2yo 




.4394 


.5606 


5 


21/2 


.5369 


.4631 


2y2 


2y2 


.4534 


.5466 


5 


5 


.54875 


.45125 


2y2 


5 


.4674 


.5326 


5 


7y2 


.5606 


•4394 


2y2 


7y2 


.4814 


.5186 


5 


10 


.5725 


.4275 


2y2 


10 


.4954 


.5046 


7y2 




.5375 


.4625 


5 




.45375 


.54625 


7% 


2y2 


.5491 


.4509 


5 


2y2 


.4674 


.5326 


7y3 


5 


.5606 


.4394 


5 


5 


.4811 


.5189 


7y2 


7y2 


.5722 


.4278 


5 


7y2 


.4947 


.5053 


7y2 


10 


.58375 


.41625 


5 


10 


.5084 


.4916 


10 




.55 


.45 


7y2 




.4681 


.5319 


10 


2y2 


.56125 


.43875 




2y2 


.4814 


.5186 


10 


5 


.5725 


.4275 


" 7% 


5 


.4947 


.5053 


10 


7y2 


.58375 


.41625 


" 7% 


7y2 


.508 


.492 


10 


10 


.595 


.405 


7y2 


10 


.5213 


.4787 










10 




.4825 


.5175 


52y2 




.525 


.475 


" . 10 


2y2 


.4954 


.5046 


2y2 




.5369 


.4631 


10 


5 


.5084 


.4916 


2y2 


2y2 


.5485 


.4515 


10 


7y2 


.5213 


.4787 


2% 


5 


.56 


44 


10 


10 


.53425 


.46575 


21/2 


7y2 


.5716 


.4284 










2yo 


10 


.5832 


.4168 


45 




.45 


.55 


5 




.54875 


.45125 


2y2 




.46375 


.53625 


5 


2y2 


.56 


44 


21/2 


2y2 


.4772 


.5228 


5 


5 


.5713 


4287 


2V2 


5 


.4906 


.5094 


5 


7y2 


.5826 


.4174 


" 2y2 


7y2 


.504 


.496 


5 


10 


.5939 


4061 


2V2 


10 


.5174 


.4826 


7y2 




.5606 


.4394 


5 




.4775 


.5225 


7y2 


2y2 


.5716 


4284 


5 


2y2 


.4906 


.5094 


:• '^^2 


5 


.5826 


.4174 


5 


5 


.5036 


.4964 




7y2 


.5936 


4064 


5 


7y2 


.5167 


.4833 


7y2 


10 


.6046 


3954 


5 


10 


.52975 


.47025 


10 




.5725 


'4275 


7y2 




.49125 


.50875 


10 


2y2 


.5832 


•4168 


7y2 


2y2 


.504 


.496 


10 


5 


.5939 


•4061 


ZY9 


5 


.5167 


.4833 


10 


7y2 


.6046 


•3954 


7y2 


7y2 


.5294 


.4706 


10 


10 


.61525 


•38475 


7y2 


10 


.5421 


.4579 










10 




.505 


.495 


55 




.55 


45 


10 


2y2 


.5174 


.4826 


2y2 




.56125 


•43875 


10 


5 


.52975 


.47025 


2y2 


2y2 


.5722 


■4278 


10 


7y2 


.5421 


.4579 


2U. 


5 


.5832 


•4168 


10 


to 


.5545 


.4455 


2y2 


7y2 


.5942 


•4058 










2y2 


10 


.6051 


• 3949 


^7^2 ^^^ 




.475 


.525 


5 




.5725 


.4275 


^Y? 




.4881 


.5119 


5 


2y2 


.5832 


.4168 


2y2 


2y2 


.5009 


.4991 


5 


5 


.5939 


.4061 


21/2 


5 


.5137 


.4863 


5 


7y2 


.6046 


.3954 


2y2 


7y2 


.5265 


.4735 


5 


10 


.61525 


.38475 


2y2 


10 


.5393 


.4607 











144 



DISCOUNT TABLES. 



DISCOUNT TABLES. 
{Continued.) 



Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. E 


iscoiint Ft 


r Cent 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


55 & 7V^ 




.58375 


.41625 6 


2y2& 10 




.6625 


.3375 




71/2 & 


2y2 


.5942 


.4058 


10 


2y2 


.6709 


.3291 


' 


7V2 


5 


.6046 


.3954 


10 


5 


.6794 


.3206 


« 


7V2 


7y2 


.615 


.385 


10 


7y2 


.6878 


.3122 


« 


7y2 


10 


.6254 


.3746 


10 


10 


.69625 


.30375 


' 


• 10 




.595 


.405 










' 


10 


2y2 


.6051 


.3949 6 


5 




.65 


.35 


' 


10 


5 


.61525 


.38475 


2y2 




.65875 


.34125 


* 


10 


7y2 


.6254 


.3746 


2y2 


2y2 


.6673 


.3327 


' 


10 


10 


.6355 


.3645 1 


2y2 


5 


.6758 


.3242 










2y2 


7y2 


.6843 


.3157 


57V2 




.575 


.425 


2y2 


10 


.6929 


.3071 




2V2 




.5856 


.4144 


5 




.6675 


.3325 


' 


2V2 


2y2 


.596 


.404 


5 


2y2 


.6758 


.3242 


' 


2V2 


5 


.6063 


.3937 


5 


5 


.6841 


.3159 




2V2 


7y2 


.6167 


.3833 


6 


7y2 


.6924 


.3076 


' 


2y2 


10 


.6271 


.3729 


5 


10 


.70075 


.29925 


' 


5 




.59625 


.40375 


7y2 




.67625 


.32375 




5 


2y2 


.6063 


.3937 


7y2 


2y2 


.6843 


.3157 


' 


5 


5 


.6164 


.3836 


7y2 


5 


.6924 


.3076 


' 


5 


7y2 


.6265 


.3735 


7y2 


7y2 


.7005 


.2995 


• 


5 


10 


.6366 


.3634 


7y2 


10 


.7086 


.2914 


' 


7y2 




.6069 


.3931 


10 




.685 


.315 


' 


7V2 


2y2 


.6167 


.3833 


10 


2y2 


.6929 


.3071 


' 


7y2 


5 


.6265 


.3735 


10 


5 


.70075 


.29925 


* 


7y2 


7y2 


.6364 


.3636 


10 


7y2 


.7086 


.2914 


• 


7y2 


10 


.6462 


.3538 


10 


10 


.7165 


.2835 


* 


10 




.6175 


.3825 










• 


10 


2y2 


.6271 


.3729 6 


7y2 




.675 


.325 


* 


10 


5 


.6366 


.3634 


2y2 




.6831 


.3169 


* 


10 


7y2 


.6462 


.3538 


2y2 


2y2 


.691 


.309 


« 


10 


10 


.65575 


.34425 


2y2 


5 


.699 


.301 










2y2 


7y2 


.7069 


.2931 


60 




60 


.40 


2y2 


10 


.7148 


.2852 


' 


2y2 




.61 


.39 


5 




.69125 


.30875 


' 


2y2 


2y2 


.61975 


.38025 


5 


2y2 


.699 


.301 


' 


2y2 


5 


.6295 


.3705 


5 


5 


.7067 


.2933 


' 


2y2 


7y2 


.63925 


.36075 


5 


7y2 


.7144 


.2856 


' 


2y2 


10 


.649 


.351 


5 


10 


.7221 


.2779 


' 


5 




.62 


.38 


7y2 




.6994 


.3006 


• 


5 


2y2 


.6295 


.3705 


7y2 


2y2 


.7069 


.2931 


' 


5 


5 


.639 


.361 


7y2 


5 


.7144 


.2856 


' 


5 


7y2 


.6485 


.3515 


7y2 


7y2 


.7219 


.2781 


• 


5 


10 


.658 


.342 


7y2 


10 


.7294 


.2706 


» 


'J'ya 




.63 


.37 


' 10 




.7075 


.2925 


' 


71/2 


2y2 


.63925 


.36075 


10 


2y2 


.7148 


.2852 


' 


7^2 


5 


.6485 


.3515 


10 


5 


.7221 


.2779 


' 


7y2 


7y2 


.65775 


•34225 


10 


7y2 


.7294 


.2706 


' 


7y2 


10 


.667 


.333 


10 


10 


.73675 


.26325 


' 


10 




.64 


.36 












10 


2y2 


.649 


.351 7 







.70 


.30 


' 


10 


5 


.658 


.342 


2y2 




.7075 


.2925 


* 


10 


71/2 


.667 


.333 


2^2 


2y2 


.7148 


.2852 


' 


10 


10 


.676 


.324 


2y2 


5 


.7221 


.2779 










2V2 


7y2 


.7294 


.2706 


62y2 




.625 


.375 


2y2 


10 


.73675 


.26325 




2y2 




.6344 


.3656 


5 




.715 


.285 


' 


2y2 


2y2 


.6435 


.3565 


5 


2y2 


.7221 


.2779 


' 


21/2 


5 


6527 


.3473 


5 


5 


.72925 


.27075 


' 


2y2 


7y2 


.6618 


.3382 


5 


7y2 


.7364 


.2636 


' 


2y2 


10 


6709 


.3291 


5 


10 


.7435 


.2565 


' 


5 ' 




164375 


.35625 


7y2 




.7225 


.2775 


' 


5 


2y2 


6527 


.3473 


7y2 


2yo 


7294 


.2706 




5 


5 


16616 


.3384 


7y2 


5 


'7364 


.2636 


: ' 


5 


7y2 


6705 


.3295 


7y2 


7y2 


•7433 


.2567 


' 


5 


10 


;6794 


.3206 


7y2 


10 


•75025 


.24975 


' 


7y2 




.6531 


.3469 


' 10 




•73 


.27 


' 


7y2 


2y2 


6618 


.3382 


10 


2y2 


•73675 


.26325 


' 


7y2 


5 


.6705 


.3295 


' 10 


5 


•7435 


.2565 


' 


7y2 


7y2 


6791 


.3209 


10 


7y2 


•75025 


.24975 




7y2 


10 


.6878 


.3122 


10 


10 


757 


.243 



DISCOUNT TABLES— DIES. 



145 



DISCOUNT TABLES. 
(Continued.) 



Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 


Net. 


Discount Per Cent. 


Equiva- 
lent. 

.76875 


Net. 


721/2 




.725 


.275 


75 & 71/2 




.23125 


" & 2V2 




.7319 


.2681 


71/2 


2y2 


.7745 


.2255 


2% & 


2y2 


.7386 


.2614 


71/2 


5 


.7803 


.2197 


21/2 


5 


.7452 


.2548 


7y2 


7y2 


.7861 


.2139 


21/2 

2y2 


71/^ 


.752 


■ 248 


7y2 


10 


.7919 


.2081 


10 ' 


.7587 


• 2413 


" 10 




.775 


.225 


5 




.73875 


26125 


10 


2y2 


,7806 


.2194 


5 


2y2 


.7453 


2547 


" 10 


5 


.78625 


.21375 


5 


5 


.7518 


2482 


10 


7y2 


.7919 


.2081 


5 


7yo 


.7583 


2417 


10 


10 


.7975 


.2025 


5 


10 


.6749 


2351 










7V2 




.7456 


.2544 


771/^ 




.776 


.225 


7V2 


2y2 


.752 


.248 


2y2 




7806 


.2194 


71/2 


5 


.7583 


.2417 


21/2 & 


2y2 


.7861 


.2139 


7y2 


7y2 


.7647 


.2353 


2y2 


5 


.7916 


.2084 


7y2 


10 


.7711 


.2289 


2y2 


7y2 


.7971 


.2029 


10 




.7525 


.2475 


21/2 


10 


.8026 


.1974 


10 


2y2 


.7587 


.2413 


5 




78625 


.21375 


10 


5 


.7649 


.2351 


5 


2y2 


.7916 


.2084 


10 


7y2 


.7711 


.2289 


5 


5 


.7969 


, .2031 


10 


10 


.77725 


.22275 


5 


7y2 


.8023 


.1977 










5 


10 


.8076 


.1924 


75 




.75 


.25 


7y2 




.7919 


.2081 


21/2 




.75625 


.24375 


7y2 


"y2 


.7971 


.2029 


21/2 


2y2 


.76234 


.23766 


71/2 


5 


.8023 


.1977 


2y2 


5 


.7684 


.2316 


71/2 


7y2 


.8075 


.1925 


2y2 


7y2 


.7745 


.2255 


7y2. 


10 


.8127 


.1873 


2y2 


10 


.7806 


.2194 


10 




.7975 


.2025 


5 




.7625 


.2375 


10 


2y2 


.8026 


.1974 


5 


2y2 


.7684 


.2316 


10 


5 


.8076 


.1924 


5 


5 


.7744 


.2256 


10 


7y2 


.8127 


.1873 


5 


71^ 


.7803 


.2197 


10 


10 


.81775 


.18225 


5 


10 


.78625 


.21375 











Speed of Dies when Cutting Bolts and Pipes. 



15 FEET PER MINUTE FOR 
ACCURATE WORK. 



FEET PER MINUTE FOR BOLT FAC- 
TORIES AND MANUFACTURING 
WORK. 




1.5 FEET PER MINUTE FOR 
PIPE. 



14. 



_7_ 
16- 

1/2. 



Vs.- 

1 .. 

IVs. 
11/4. 
1%. 

iy2 
1%.. 
1%.. 
1%.. 

2 .. 
2y8.. 
2V4.. 
2V2.. 
2%.. 

3 .. 



Use Lard Oil 



Vs 140 

1/4 110 

% 82 

V2 70 

% 52 

1% 33 

11/2 28 

2 23 

2y2 19 

3 14 

Use Lard Oil. 



Tapping nuts same speed as cutting bolts. 



10 



146 



DIES — DOLLAR; 



Table of Proportions of Si^es of Square Solid Dies. 

%inch 114^^ square X iV^ thick. 

h " 1%'' " X %'' " 

% " 11/2'^ " X ,V' " 

/e " 1%'' " X V2'' " 

1/2 " ...1%'' " X xV " 

% " 2^^ " X liV " 

% " 2V^'' " X liV' " 

% " 21/2^^ " X liV' " 

1 " 2%'' " X liV " 

IVs " S'' " X IfV " 

l^A " 314'' " X IfV^ " 

The Almighty Dollar. 



One dollar loaned one hundred years at 

1 per cent would amount to $2.75 



3 

6 
10 
12 
15 
18 
24 



19.25 

340.00 

13,809.00 

84,675.00 

1,174,405.00 

... 15,145,007.00 
2,551,799,404.00 



Glycerine Cement. 

A valuable cement for general use, stopping leaks in tanks, joining chem- 
ical apparatus such as glass and brass ; in fact for closing cracks and stop- 
ping leaks in almost everything, may be made by mixing commercial glycer- 
ine and litharge to the consistency of dough. 

It may be somewhat improved by using Portland cement with the 
litharge — equal parts — when large joints or cracks are to be filled. This 
will harden under water, and will stand not only a high temperature, but 
also the action of hydro-carbon vapors. 



For Mouth Pieces of Clay Retorts. 



Three-fourths fire-clay, one-fourth iron borings, 
mix with ammoniacal water. Use no sulphur. 



When wanted for use 



DOLLAR. 



147 



Paper Dollars and Coin. 

The following table shows the relative value of a currency dollar to 
coin at different rates of premium from 1 to 100. 

The results g^iven are as near as can be approached without the aid of 
mills. 





VALUE OF A CUR- 




VALUE OF A CUR- 


PREMIUM. 




PREMIUM. 






RENCY DOLLAR. 




RENCY DOLLAR. 


101 


99 


151 


66X 


102 


98 


152 


65% 


103 


97 


153 


65^ 


104 


96K 


154 


65 


105 


95 X 


155 


64K 


106 


94^^ 


156 


64 >^ 


107 


93 >^ 


157 


6S% 


108 


92}4 


158 


63 J€ 


109 


91% 


159 


62% 


110 


90% 


160 


623^ 


111 


90 


161 


62 


112 


891^ 


162 


61% 


113 


88K 


163 


61^ 


114 


87% 


164 


61 


115 


86% 


165 


60^ 


116 


86^ 


166 


60 J€ 


117 


853^ 


167 


59% 


118 


84% 


16S 


59>i 


119 


84M 


169 


59% 


120 


83^ 


170 


58i 


121 


82% 


171 


58 K 


122 


82 


172 


58^ 


123 


811^ 


173 


57% 


124 


80^ 


174 


573^ 


125 


80 


175 


57% 


126 


79% 


176 


56% 


127 


78% 


177 


563^ 


128 


78 J^ 


178 


56% 


129 


77M 


179 


55H 


130 


77 


180 


55% 


131 


76% 


181 


55 3i 


132 


75% 


182 


55 


133 


75J^ 


183 


54% 


134 


74| 


184 


54% 


135 


74 


185 


54 


136 


73K 


186 


53% 


137 


73 


187 


53% 


138 


72K 


188 


53 J€ 


139 


72 


189 


53 


140 


71K 


190 


521 


141 


71 


191 


52% 


142 


70% 


192 


52^ 


143 


69% 


193 


51% 


144 


69K 


194 


51% 


145 


69 


195 


51 Ji 


146 


68X 


196 


51 


147 


68 


197 


50% 


148 


673^ 


198 


50% 


149 


67 


199 


50 X 


150 


66| 


200 


50 



148 DOLLAR. 



Example: 

What is a paper dollar worth when gold is at a premium of 164? 

Operation: 

164 : 100 : : 100 : 601?. Answer. 
Example: 

When gold is at a premium of 200, what is a paper dollar worth? 
200 : 100 : : 100 : 50c. Answer. 

To Find the Commercial Value of the Silver in a Standard 
Silver Dollar, From Day to Day. 

Rule: 

Multiply the New York quotations, expressed in dollars and cents, or 
altogether in cents, by .7734%, and the product will be the market value of 
the silver in the dollar, at the time. 

To find the exact American value of the London quotation of silver. 

Rule: 

Multipl}^ the London quotation in pence, orin pence and fractional parts 
therof, by 2.1921 and the American price at the regular par of exchange will 
be shown. 

Example: 

If silver is quoted in London at 54 pence per ounce, then the exact 
American value is 54X2.1921, or $1.18 -f- per ounce. 

Smooth iron discs 40 to 44 inches in diameter, for cutting iron or steel, 
should be run from 55,000 to 65,000 feet per minute on the periphery. 
Discs of these diameters have been run at 85,000 feet per minute. 



Steam in contact with the water from which it is formed may be wet 
or dry, according to circumstances and without reference to the pressure. 
Dry steam — so called — is steam without any excess of heat and in which 
there is no water except what is in the form of steam, but since such steam 
can part with no heat without condensation, and since it usually contains 
a little water carried off mechanically, it is seldom met with in practice. 
Superheated steam contains heat in excess of that due to the pressure, which 
excess of heat may be parted with before condensation results. It is erro- 
neous to suppose that the Heine, the Babcock & Wilcox and other patented 
boilers deliver GUperheated steam. The manufacturers make no such 
claim. 



ENGINES. 



149 



llsss! -^ 



a; 



A 
o 

0) 

J> 
Q 

O 

I 

a> 

(0 

u 
o 



bo 

o 
CO 

(U 






I ■<*< -"a" >r; : 



^ U^ 



^ I 



8S?! 






S<!P?^ 



S ^2§;s 



S ^; 



I 1— eoift 



:SS 



I eo-#m 



I weorf 



o £ S 

J2 J=^ 



fc- t- u 

as « G 
o o c 



a i, sj 

tC X « 

L' u ;^ 

o o o 



be 



fcX) 



(11 +!* 



'5 


rn 




rt 








^, 






ri2 


C 






flj 




> 

c3 


o 


,13 


u 






<u 


s 


^ 




o 


V 


a 


D . 


^ 


(U 


^^ 




o 


1 


o 




-4-1 

u 


S 






,__ 


o 


rt 


C 










o 


r! 














!U 


rt 










-l-> 








a; 


-p 






C3 


-M 






o 


-t-> 


> 




O 


3 


r^ 


r^ 









"C^ s:i oj 1 




IJ as G t: 




dicat 
P. at 
Aver 
Pieto 
ressu 


i;:Sg§§?^J^||gg^| 


^-TH-^- P^ 1 








01 








g"?? 


-■ 






•2 al i 


Q 


PhM t. 


ia*; 






a 




u. 




= S.« i 




isl 


m-SS|g^S8SS?i 


«-2^ 




aj 




s 


22S288SS^S^-^^ 






75 

1 




^ 






2Z^2--22ggJ^^§S 


«5 






^ 




iS,- 




O 03 S 

S'^ p ^ 


8S8Sg38 








«■=« 






01 OB 






OJ3 


GC O O -N •>? '~C'0 














^fl 




o a 






B 55 










S J 


<- . 




CO iH 


^ s 






il 


GO o ■?!•?■■» ^ If: c- 






aj li 




ll 


»rt iC ift ■'" '^ ift o 




^ 


■ 


iS,2 




O 03 2 


Ojft^OOO 










tf-z:S 






^w 




f^ ^ 


2-5 


ir: ic =c i- 00 CT> 


c a 


CC>-I 










K z 








i^03- 




cZf;i 


1 


o 


5 


1 








•*mt-o>co 
















^ 





iixyijirv±i&. 



I/ist of Sisjes and Powers of Automatic High Speed Engines. 
Commercial Rating at 40 Pounds M. ;E. P. 





CYLINDER 


CO 
g 


i 




CYLINDER 


1 


i 

m 

Iz; 



P5 


CYLINDER 


g 
^ 
g 
S 

g 






S£ 




d 


i 


H 


iz; 


P3 



il 




> 
S3 


2 
h 


P3 





9 




H 

2 


1 


5 




1 


i 


75 


10 


15 


300 


750 


5 


41/," 


4" 


500 


3,33 


5 


5" 


4" 


400 


«fi6' 


105 


12 


16 


290 


773 


10 


51//' 


5" 


500 


417 


10 


6" 


5" 


390 


325' 


145 


14 


18 


260 


780 


15 


6I/0" 


6" 


4(X) 


4(X) 


15 


7" 


6" 


375 


375' 


166 


15 


18 


260 


780 


25 


7y/' 


7" 


390 


455 


25 


8" 


7" 


360 


420' 


190 


16 


21 


225 


787 


35 


8y/' 


8" 


375 


500 


35 


9" 


8" 


350 


466' 


212 


17 


21 


225 


787 


45 


91//' 


9" 


350 


525 


50 


10" 


9" 


.350 


525' 


243 


18 


24 


200 


800 


60 


11 " 


10" 


320 


534 












300 


20 


24 


200 


800 


1 75 


12 " 


11" 


300 


550 












310 


20 


27 


181 


825 


100 


131/2" 


12" 


300 


600 












380 


22 


27 


181 


825 


125 


141/2" 


13" 


290 


628 












460 


24 


30 


170 


850 


150 


isy," 


14" 


280 


653 












540 


26 


30 


170 


a50 


200 


18 " 


16" 


250 


666 












670 


28 


36 


150 


900 


250 


20 " 


16" 


250 


666 


1 










760 


30 


36 


150 


900 























Steam i^ngine. 

When steam is used expansively, under the best conditions, it will give 
double the power for the same amount of steam that can be got from it 
worked at full stroke, or without expansion. 

When steam is used in non-condensing engines, at low pressure, the loss 
is great, owing to the pressure of the atmosphere (15 pounds) being agreater 
percentage of a low than of a high pressure. 

The loss for different piston pressures is as follows: 







TOTAL PRESSURE 




ATMOSPHERE. 


STEAM PRESSURE. 


ON PISTON. 


LOSS. 


15 


5 


20 


% 


15 


10 


25 


1 


15 


15 


30 


V2 


15 


20 


35 


f 


15 


25 


40 


% 


15 


30 


45 


1 



The above table has reference only to the pressure on the piston in the 
cylinder of the engine, and does not refer to the boiler pressure, as indicated 
by the steam gauge. 

To Find the Area of a Steam i^ngine Cylinder, the Horse- 
Power, Steam Pressure and Speed of Piston Being Given. 

Rule: 

Multiply the number of horse-power by 33,000, and divide the result 
by the piston speed in feet per minute multiplied b^^ the steam pressure. 

The result will be the area ot cylinder in square inches, th^ square root 
of which will be the diameter of cylinder, 



ENGINES. 151 

A right hand engine is such that when the engineer stands facing the 
side of the cyhnder, the throttle valve is at his left hand, while the crank is 
at his right. 

An engine is said to run under w^hen the crank pin (being above the 
center of main shaft) moves toward the c^dinder. And it runs over, when 
the crank pin moves away from the cylinder — being at the same time above 
the centre of main shaft, as before. 

Horse-Power. 

To find the actual horse-power of a steam engine. 

Rule: 

Multipl}' the diameter of the piston in inches bj' itself, and this result by 
.7854, which will give the area of the piston in square inches. Multiply the 
area so found by the speed of the piston in feet per minute, or, if the speed 
is taken in inches, divide the product by 12, after multiplying. 

Multiph' the speed of piston by the mean effective, or average, pressure 
of steam upon the piston (which can only be determined by applying the 
indicator), and divide the product by 33,000, which gives the actual horse- 
power. 

Deduct 15 per cent, from the result for friction. 

Note. The speed of piston is found bj^ multiplying twice the length of 
stroke by the number of revolutions per minute. 
Example: 

What is the horse-power of an engine, the diameter of cylinder being 
8V^ inches, stroke of piston 16 inches, revolutions per minute 100, boiler 
pressure 75 pounds, mean effective pressure on piston 50 pounds? 
8V2^^ X 8V2^^ X .7854 = 56.745 square inches. 
56.745 X 50 = 2837.25 pounds. 
16" X 2 = 32^^ = 2.66 feet. 
2.66 feet X 100 revolutions = 266 feet„ 
2837.25 X 266 = 754708.5 pounds, 

754708 5 oo o/? 1, 

. = 22.86 horse-power, 

33,000 

22.86 X .15 = 3.4290 

22.8600 
3.4290 

19.4310 horse-power. Answer. 
The power of an engine may be increased by increasing its speed. When 
it is not pennissable to increase the speed of line shaft, the diameter of 
driven pulley on] line shaft ma3'' be increased, or the diameter of pulley on 
main shaft may be decreased, so as to maintain former speed of main driv- 
ing belt. Decreasing the diameter of main shaft pulle}- gives the engine 
greater leverage, and increasing the speed of engine gives greater power. 
It means that the engine will require so man}^ more cylinder fulls of steam, 
at former pressure, in the same time, and this, of course, necessitates the 
burning of T»ore fuel. In case the boiler is able to stapd a higher pre§sx;re 



352 



of steam, the power of an engine may be increased by increasing the boiler 
pressure, and as a consequence the mean effective pressure on the piston. 
But this also would necessitate the consumption of m.ore fuel, as we cannot 
get more power for nothing. Again, by increasing the boiler pressure, and 
decreasing the outside lap of valve so as to cut off later, the power of an 
engine may be increased. But this latter method is not advisable. 

l/ocomotive i^ngines. 

Lap = Travel X 0.22 
Lead= " X 0.07 
Let D equal diameter of cylinder. 
Then, 

Area of steam ports = D' X .08 

" " exhaust " = D^ x .18 

Diam. of piston rod =r D X .15 

Thickness " " = D X .28 

Diam. of feed pump ) 

plungerif of same 1= D X .11 
stroke as piston ) 

D:&,iia. of feed pipe =D X .12 

Diam. of valve stem == D X .09 

Diam. of driving axle = D X .4 

Diamoftructt " = D X .3 

Table of Standard Horse-Power for Different Nations. 







m 


s 


HO 





H 


d 


d 




K 




2!^ 


tH (5 


o ^ 


H » 


H z 








9 o 


c o 


o o 


o o 


o o 






5 « 


t> a 


^ o 


O '^ 


fe o 




o o 


COUNTRY. 


^1 




o « 














^ tn 






S ^ 




-5 ft 


s ft 


» ft 




^» 


fetf 


f^ a 


Is 


2 ^ 


t;. W 


o w 






S w 


^ » 


■A W 


H 


B « 


o a 


^ 


SS fi 




9 E 


H PM 


o ft 


« ^ 


s i^ 


15 iz; 


wiz; 


P Jz; 









K 


pp 


ftp 


< p 


P 


<! p 






<! 


■< 


^^ 


o 


K p 


o 


o 






pq 


CD 


ft 


ft 


ft 


P( 


France and Baden 


75 


500 










542.47 
542.80 




Saxony 




530 










Wurtemberg 








525 


480 


516 


543 95 

544.82 
545.08 




Prussia 










Hanover 












England 















550 




Austria 











1 







550.57 


430 



EXPANSION — ELECTRICITY. 



153 



lyiNi^AR :expansion op substanc:es by H:eAT. 

To find the increase in the length of a bar of any material due to an in- 
crease of temperature, multiply the number of degrees of increase of temper- 
ature by the coefficient for 100 degress and by the length of the bar, and 
divide bv 100. 



NAME OF SUBSTANCE. 



Baywood (in the direction of the grain, dry) ... 



Brass (cast) 

" (wire) 

Brick (fire) 

Cement (Roman) 

Copper 

Deal (in the direction of the grain, dry). 
Glass (English flint) 

" (French white lead) 

Gold 



Granite (average). 
Iron (cast) 

" (soft forged). 

" (wire) 

Lead 



Marble (Carrara). 



Mercury.. 
Platinum 



Sandstone. 



COEFFIC'NT FOR 



Silver 

Slate (Wales) 

Water (varies considerably with the tem perature ) 



COEFFICIBNT 

FOR 100'' 
FAHRENHEIT. 


180" FAHREN- 
HEIT, OR 100" 
CENTIGRADE. 


.00026 


.00046 


TO 


TO 


.00031 


.00057 


.00104 


.00188 


.00107 


.00193 


.0003 


.0005 


.0008 


.0014 


.0009 


.0017 


.00024 


.00044 


.00045 


.00081 


.00048 


.00087 


.0008 


.0015 


.00047 


.00085 


.0006 


.0011 


.0007 


.0012 


.0008 


.0014 


.0016 


.0029 


.00036 


.00065 


TO 


TO 


.0006 


.0011 


.0033 


.0060 


.0005 


.0009 


.0005 


.0009 


TO 


TO 


.0007 


.0012 


.0011 


.002 


.0006 


.001 


.0086 


' .0155 



Electricity. 

In the following list, each substance becomes positively electrified when 
rubbed with the bodj^ following it; but negativeh^ with the one preced- 
ing it. 

Cat's lur. Cotton. Shellac. Caoutchouc. 

Flannel. Silk. Resin. Gutta-percha. 

Ivory. The hand. The metals. Gun-cotton. 

Glass. Wood. Sulphur. 

In the following list each substance is electro-negative toward those 
which follow it, and electro-positive toward those which precede. 

Ox3''gen. Carbon. - Copper. Manganese. 

Sulphur. Antimony. Bismuth. Aluminum. 

Nitrogen. Silicon. Tin. Magnesium. 

Chlorine, Hydrogen, I^ead. Calcivim, 



154 



ETCHING — FANS. 



Iodine. Gold. 

Phosphorus. Platinum. 

Molybdenum. Mercury. 

Tungsten. Silver. 



Cobalt. 


Barium. 


Nickel. 


Lithium. 


Iron. 


Sodium. 


Zinc. 


Potasium 



Best Conductors. 

Metals. Minerals. Vegetables. Cotton. 

Charcoal. Water. Animals. Dry wood. 

Flame. Iron. Linen. Ice. 

Best Insulators. 

Shellac. Sulphur. Glass. Air. 

Amber. Wax. Silk. Dry paper. 

Caoutchouc 

Hatching. 

For steel, 50 parts of water, 40 parts sulphuric, 10 parts nitric acid. 

For iron, 50 parts of water, 45 parts sulphuric, and 5 parts hydro- 
chloric acids. 

For brass, 50 parts of water, 40 parts nitric, 10 parts hydrochloric 
acids. 

Heat bath to 180 degrees, and immerse article for 15 minutes after bath 
is hot. 



Specifications and Capacity of Mine Ventilating Fans. 









1 


CUBIC FEET 


HORSE -POWER 


OUTSIDE 


WIDTH 


DEPTH 


REVOLUTIONS ] 


OF UNRESISTED 


SUITABLE TO 


DIAMETER. 


OF BLADES. 


OF BLADES. 


OF FAN SHAFT 


DISCHARGE 


DRIVE AT 


TEET. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


PER MINUTE. 


PER MINUTE. 


SPEED GIVEN. 


6 


18 


20 


400 


35,000 


5 


/ 


21 


24 


350 


48,000 


7 


8 


24 


30 


300 


60,000 


8 


9 


27 


32 


270 


80,000 


9 


10 


30 


34 


240 


100,000 


12 


12 


32 


36 


200 


132,000 


14 


14 


36 


42 


175 


190,000 


16 


18 


48 


54 


149 


325,000 


9.F^ 


24 


60 


66 


100 


600,000 


,85 



Etching Tyiquid for Steel. 

Mix one ounce of sulphate of copper, one-fourth of an ounce of alum, 
and one-half teaspoonful of salt reduced to powder, with one gill of vine- 
gar and twenty drops of nitric acid. This liquid may be used either for 
eating deeply into the metal or for imparting a beautiful frosted appear- 
ing^ to the surface, according to the time it is allowed to act. 



FLANGES— FUEL. 



155 



CAST IRON ST^AM PIPE FI<ANGBS. 



Table of Standard Dimensions. 



NOMINAL INTERNAL 


EXTERNAL DIAMETER 


THICKNESS OF 


APPROXIMATE WEIGHT 


DIAMETER OP PIPE. 


OF FLANGES. 


METAL. 


OF FLANGES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


POUNDS. 


% 


3V2 


K 


IK 


1 


4 


K 


IB 


IV4 


41/2 


1*6 


2K 


VV2 


5V2 


A 


3% 


2 


6V2 


% 


6K 


2V2 


7 


\h 


8 


3 


8 


H 


9% 


3V2 


8V2 


11 


11 


4 


9 


% 


14 


4V2 


9y2 


}| 


15 


5 


11 




21K 


6 


12 


liV 


24 


7 


13 


IH 


33 Ji 


8 


14 


li^^ 


423^ 


9 


15 


I'A 


443^ 


10 


16 


li\ 


47 K 


11 


17 


1^6 


50 


12 


18 


ill 


55 


13 


19 


Ire 


65 


14 


20 


ik 


76 


15 


21 


1% 


88 


16 


22 


IH 


103 


17 


23 


\% 


120 



Comparative Value of Dfferent Kinds of Wood for Fuel. 



KINDS OF WOOD. 


WEIGHT OF 1 CORD 
IN POUNDS. 


RELATIVE VALUE 
FOR FUEL. 


Red Oak 


3,254 
4,469 
3,955 
3,821 
3,450 
3,236 
3,044 
3,115 
2,919 
2,878 
2,592 
2,704 
2,668 
2,463 
2,391 
2,333 
2,369 
2,137 
1,904 
1,868 


1 00 


Shell-bark Hickory 


1 45 


Chestnut White Oak 


1 25 


White Oak 


1 17 


Ash 


1.12 
94 


" Beech 


Black Walnut 


94 


" Birch 


91 


Yellow Oak 


87 


Hard Maple 


87 


White Elm 


84 


Large Magnolia 


81 


Soft Maple 


.78 


" Yellow Pine 


.78 


Svcamore 


.75 


Chestnut 


.75 


White Birch ... ... 


70 


Jersey Pine 


70 


Pitch " 


62 


White " 


.61 







156 



FUEL. 



Comparative Value of Wood and Coal as Fuel. 

1 Cord of Hickory is equivalent to 2,000 lbs. coal. 





" White Oak 
'' Beech 
" Red Oak 
" Black Oak 


" 1,715 lbs. '• 
" 1,450 lbs. " 




" Poplar " 
" Chestnut 
" Elm 


" 1,050 lbs. " 




•' Pine 


" 925 lbs. " 



Table Showing the Weight of One Cord of Different Woods 

Air Dried. 

1 Cord of Hickory or Hard Maple weighs 4,500 pounds. 

3,850 
3,250 



2,350 



1 ' 


•• White Oak 


1 ' 


" Beech 


1 " " Red Oak 


1 ' 


' " Black Oak 


1 ' 


' " Poplar 


1 ' 


" Chestnut 


1 ' 


' " Elm 


1 ' 


' " Pine 



2.000 



Table Showing Water and Coal Required for Steam Power. 





WATER IN 


COAL REQUIR'D 


WATER IN 


COAL IN LBS. 


HORSE-POWER. 


GALLONS PER 


IN POUNDS 


GALLS. PER DAY 


PER DAY OF 




HOUR. 


PER HOUR 


OF 10 HOURS. 


10 HOURS. 


5 


20 


20 


200 


200 


10 


41 


40 


410 


400 


15 


58 


60 


580 


600 


20 


72 


80 


720 


800 


25 


90 


100 


900 


1,000 


30 


110 


120 


1,100 


1,200 


40 


145 


160 


1,450 


1,600 


50 


180 


200 


1,800 


2,000 


60 


220 


240 


2,200 


2.400 


70 


260 


280 


2,600 


2,800 


80 


290 


320 


2,900 


3,200 


100 


405 


400 


4,050 


4,000 


125 


450 


500 


4,500 


5,000 


150 


590 


600 


5,900 


6,000 


200 


725 


800 


7.250 


8,000 


250 


900 


1,000 


9.000 


10.000 



It is stated that, by the greatest refinement in engines yet accom- 
plished, the cost of a horse power has not been brought below IV2 pounds of 
coal per hour, while the average engine uses 3i/^ pounds of coal per horse- 
power. 

One gallon of petroleum is equivalent under a boiler to 12 pounds of 
coal; 190 standai^ gallons are equivalent to 1 ton of coal. 



FUEI. 



157 



One pound of coal is equal, for steam-making purposes, to 2 pounds of 
dry peat, 2l^ to 2V2 pounds of dry wood, 2V2 to 3 pounds of dried tan-bark, 
2V2 to 3 pounds of sun-dried bagasse, 2% to 3 pounds of cotton stalks, 3H 
to 3% pounds ol wheat or barley straw, 5 to 6 pounds of wet bagasse, and 
6 to 8 pounds of wet tan-bark. 

About 30,000 cubic feet of natural gas are equal to one ton of coal. 

One pound of petroleum is equal to 1.8 pounds of coal. 

In estimating for a consumption of 14 pounds of coal per square foot of 
srrate per hour, about 8 pounds of water may be taken as the rate of evapo- 
ration per pound of coal, which can be done with a good natural draught. 

Percentage of Saving of Fuel By Heating Feed Water 
(Steam at 60 I/bs.)- 



K Pu r! 








INITIAL 


TEMPERATURE OF 


WATEE 












32° 


40° 


50o 


60° 


70° 


80° 


90° 


100° 


120° 


H0° 


160° 


180° 


200° 


60° 


2.39 


1.71 


0.86 


0. 




















80° 


4.09 


3.43 


2.59 


1.74 


0.88 


0. 
















100° 


5.79 


5.14 


4.32 


3.49 


2.64 


1.77 


0.90 


0. 












120° 


7.50 


6,85 


6.05 


5.23 


4.40 


3.55 


2.68 


1.80 


0. 










140° 


9.20 


8.57 


7.77 


6.97 


6.15 


5.32 


4.47 


3.61 


1.84 


0. 








160" 


10.90 


10.28 


9.50 


8.72 


7.91 


7.09 


6.26 


5.42 


3.67 


1.87 


0. 






ISO'' 


12.60 


12.00 


11.23 


10.46 


9.68 


8.87 


8.06 


7.23 


5.52 


3.75 


1.91 


0. 




200° 


14.30 


18.71 


13.00 


12.20 


11.43 


10.65 


9.85 


9.03 


7.36 


5.62 


3.82 


1.S6 


0. 


220° 


16.00 


15.42 


14.70 


14.00 


13.19 


12.33 


11.64 


10.84 


9.20 


7.50 


5.73 


3.93 


1.98 


240° 


17.79 


17.13 


16.42 


15.69 


14.96 


14.20 


13.43 


12.65 


11.05 


9.37 


7.64 


5.90 


3.97 


26U° 


19.40 


18.85 


18.15 


17.44 


16.71 


15.97 


15.22 


14.45 


11.88 


11.24 


9.56 


7.86 


5.96 


280° 


21.10 


20.56 


19.87 


19.18 


18.47 


17.75 


17.01 


16.26 


14.72 


13.02 


11.46 


9.73 


7.94 


300° 


22.88 


22.27 


21.61 


20.92 


20.23 


19.52 


18.81 


18.07 


16.49 


14.99 


13.37 


11.70 


9.93 



One dollar per day saved in cost of fuel amounts, v/ith interest, to the 
following: 



YEARS. 


4 PER CENT. 


6 PER CENT. 


8 PER CENT. 


1 PER CENT. 


1 


$324.48 
1.757.50 
3,895.76 
6.497.24 
9,662.39 


$330.72 
1,864.20 
4,359.14 
7.697.82 
12,165.72 


$336.96 
1,976.80 
4,881.40 
9,149.18 
15,419.94 


$343.20 


5 

10 


2,095.26 
5,469.73 


15 


10,904.30 
19,656.78 


20 





Softening Cast-Iron. 

Heat the cast-iron to a red heat and quench in water about the same 
heat, and use the same judgment as you would in quenching a piece of steel, 
then heat again to a red heat, and allow to cool slowly, the same as you 
would anneal steel. There may be a difficulty in large pieces, from their 
liability to crack in quenching, but this process will soften them. Careful 
heating, however, will go largely towards preventing cracking. 



158 



FLUES — FISH PLATES. 



WROUGHT IRON FI,UES. 



Resistance to Collapsing Pressure. 









11 










cd 




S£ 


Ph t3 


X 




ao 


£ ^ 


< 


% ■ 







s 


H 

z 




PRING 
PER 8Q 
INCH. 


ft 




3 


8S 






s 


if 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


6 


10 


.2 


417 


iiy2 


12 


.2 


197 


61/2 


10 


.2 


385 


iiy2 


12 


^4 


368 


7 


10 


.2 


357 


iiy2 


12 


1^6 


532 


7 


10 


1/4 


580 


12 


15 


.2 


153 


71/2 


10 


.2 


333 


12 


15 


y4 


239 


71/2 


10 


1/4 


542 


12 


15 


A 


415 


8 


10 


.2 


312 


i2y2 


15 


l^ 


229 


8 


10 


1/4 


508 


12^2 


15 


h 


308 


8y2 


10 


.2 


294 


13 


15 


Va. 


220 


81/2 


10 


y4 


478 


13 


15 


1% 


384 


9 


10 


.2 


278 


i3y2 


15 


V4 


212 


9 


10 


1/4 


451 


i3y2 


15 


I'e 


369 


91/2 


10 


.2 


163 


14 


18 


y4 


176 


91/2 


10 


1/4 


427 


14 


18 


lA 


305 


10 


12 


.2 


227 


I4y2 


18 


y4 


168 


10 


12 


1/4 


354 


I4y2 


18 


1^6 


294 


10 


12 


1^. 


612 


15 


20 


y4 


157 


10V2 


12 


.2 


216 


15 


20 


1^6 


276 


ioy2 


12 


y4 


337 


i5y2 


20 


y4 


152 


lOVa 


12 


1^6 


583 


i5y2 


20 


h 


267 


11 


12 


.2 


206 


16 


20 


V4. 


148 


11 


12 


¥4 


322 


16 


20 


h 


231 


11 


12 


1^6 


557 











Weight and Number of Fish Plates and Bolts Required Per 

Mile. 



Lengths of 


No. of Joints 


Lbs. of Plates 


Lbs. of Bolts 


Total Weights 


Rails. 


per mile. 


per mile. 


per mile. 


per mile. 


18 feet. 


588 


9,408 


2,352 


11,760 


21 " 


528 


8.448 


2,112 


10,560 


24 •* 


440 


7,040 


1,760 


8.800 


25 " 


423 


6,768 


1,682 


8.460 


27 " 


391 


6,256 


1,564 


7.820 


30 " 


352 


5,632 


1,408 


7,040 



Note. — If double nuts are used, add 37/i 
bolts. 



per cent to the weight of the 



l^IRE — FORCE. 



159 



Temperature of Fire. 



APPEARANCE. 


TEMP. FAHR. 


APPEARANCE. 


TEMP. FAHR. 


Red, just visible 

'« dull 


977° 
1290° 
1470° 
1650° 
1830° 


Orange, deep 


2010° 


" clear 

White heat 


2190° 


" cherry, dull... 
full . 


2370° 


" bright 


2550° 


" " clear.. 


*' dazzling 


2730° 



Freezing Points. 

Acid Nitric 55° below zero. 

" Sulfuric 1° 

Ether 47° " 

Mercury 39° 

Milk .....30° 

Olive Oil 36° 

Linseed Oil 11° " 

ProofSpirits 7° 

Spirits Turpentine 16° 

Vinegar 28° 

Water 32° 

Water expands in freezing ^ of its bulk. 



Morin's I^aws of Friction. 

1st. — The friction bears to the pressure on the surfaces in contact a 
ratio which is constant for the same materials, and with the same condition 
of surfaces. 

2nd. — The measure of the friction is independent ot the extent of the 
surfaces in contact, the pressure and the condition and character of the sur- 
faces remaining the same. 

3rd. — The friction is entirely independent of the velocity of continuous 
motion. 

CBNTRIFUGAI, FORCE. 



To Find the Centrifugal Force of a Given Weight. 

Rule. — Multiph^ the square of the revolutions per minute, by the radius 
of the circle, in feet, in which the weight revolves, and this product by the 
weight itself. This product multiplied b^' the constant, .000331, will give 
the centrifugal force in terms of the weight of the body. 

Example. — A weight of 40 pounds revolving 75 times per minute is 
suspended 3 feet from center of shaft. What is its centrifugal force? 
752 X 3 X 40 X .000331 = 223.425 lbs. Ans. 



160 FREIGHT. 



In Billing Railroad Freights the Following Weights Are 
Taken, When the Freight is Not Actually Weighed, 

Ale and Beer 320 lbs. per bbl. 

Apples, green 150 " " " 

Beef. 320 " " " 

Barley 48 " " bu. 

Beans 60 " " " 

Cider 350 " " bbl. 

Corn Meal.. 220 " " '* 

Corn, shelled 56 " " bu. 

Corn in the ear 70 " " " 

Clover 60 " " " 

Eggs 200 " '' bbl. 

Fish 300 " " " 

Flour • 200 " '• " 

Highwines 350 " " " 

Lime : 200 " " " 

Nails 108 " " keg. 

Oil 400 " " bbl. 

Oats 32 " " bu. 

Pork 320 " " bbl. 

Potatoes, Irish 150 " " " 

Salt, fine 300 " " " 

" coarse 350 * '' " 

" in sacks 200 " " sack. 

Wheat 60 " " bu. 

'Whisky 350 " " bbl. 



Mending Broken Belts. 

According to Campe, broken belting can be re-united by the use of 
chrome glue. With a lap of four or five inches, the re-united part is appar- 
ently as firm as any part of the band, though it is v^^ell to take the precau- 
tion to tack down the ends of the lapped pieces with a few stitches of stout 
thread. The chrome glue is prepared in this way: Take a 100 parts of 
glue soaked 12 hours in water, then pour off the surplus water, melt the 
glue, add 2 per cent, of glycerine and 3 per cent of red chromate of potash, 
melting them with the glue. This mixture, thinned by warming, is applied 
to the lapped ends after having been roughened with a rasp, and then placed 
between two hard wood strips in a vise and well pressed for 24 hours. 



GAUGES. 



161 



Wire Gauges, Nos. and Sizes. 





BIRMINGHAM 


BROWX & 


WASHBURN & 


TRENTO.V IRON 


NUMBER. 


OR stub's 


sharpe's 


MOEX'S GAUGE. 


go's GAUGE. 




GAUGE. 


GAUGE. 






7-0 






.490 




6-0 






.460 




5-0 






.430 


.450 


4-0 


.454 


.46000 


.393 


.400 


3-0 


.425 


.40964 


.362 


.360 


2-0 


.380 


36480 


.331 


.330 


1-0 


.340 


.32495 


.307 


.305 


1 


.300 


.28930 


.283 


.285 


2 


.284 


.25763 


.263 


.265 


3 


.2.-^9 


.22942 


.244 


.245 


4 


.238 


.20431 


.225 


.225 


5 


220 


.18194 


.207 


.205 


6 


.203 


.16202 


.192 


.190 


7 


.180 


.14428 


.177 


.175 


8 


.165 


.12849 


.162 


.160 


9 


.148 


.11443 


148 


.145 


10 


134 


. .10189 


.135 


.130 


11 


.120 


.09074 


.120 


.1175 


12 


.109 


.08081 


.105 


1050 


13 


.095 


.07196 


;092 


.0925 


14 


.083 


.06408 


.080 


.0800 


15 


.072 


.05707 


.072 


.0700 


16 


.065 


.05082 


.063 


.0610 


17 


.058 


.04526 


.054 


.0525 


18 


.049 


.04030 


.047 


.0450 


19 


.042 


.03589 


.041 


.0400 


20 


.035 


.03196 


.035 


.0355 


21 


.032 


.02846 


.032 


.0310 


22 


.028 


.02535 


.028 


.0280 


23 


,025 


.02257 


.025 


.0250 


24 


.022 


.02010 


.023 


.0225 


25 


.020 


.01790 


.020 


.02075 


26 


.018 


.01594 


.018 


.01900 


27 


.016 


.01419 


.017 


.01750 


28 


.014 


.01264 


.016 


.01650 


29 


.013 


.01126 


.015 


.01550 


30 


.012 


.01002 


.014 


.01450 


31 


.010 


.00893 


.0135 


.01375 


32 


.009 


.00795 


.013 


.01300 


33 


.008 


.00708 


.011 


.01200 


34 


.007 


.00630 


.010 


.01100 


35 


.005 


.00561 


.0095 


.01000 


36 


.004 


.00500 


.009 


.00900 


37 


i 


.00445 




.00825 


38 




.00396 




.00775 


39 




.00353 




.00725 


40 


j 


.00314 




.00675 



When plumbago is put on a hot journal the fine powder fills up the cav- 
ities and grooves caused by the heating and abrasion of the surfaces thus 
forming as it were a new surface. 

Plumbago being of a fine metallic nature puts a polished surface upon 

a journal which with a little attention will cool down and cause no more 

trouble. 

li 



162 



GAUGES. 



Si^es of the Numbers of Steel Music Wire Gauge. 





Size of each No. in 




Size of each No. in 


No. of Gauge, 


decimal parts of 


No. of Gauge. 


decimal parts of 




an inch. 




an inch. 


12 


.0295 


21 


.0461 


13 


.0311 


22 


.0481 


14 


.0325 


23 


.0506 


15 


.0343 


24 


.0547 


16 


.0359 


25 


.0585 


17 


.0378 


26 


.0626 


18 


.0395 


27 


.0663 


19 


.0414 


28 


.0719 


20 


.043 







STANDARD SAW GAUG:^. 



To be Observed When Ordering Circular Saws. 

Gauge No. 4 is 14 inch scant. 



5 is /a 


'* 


6 is ,% 


" full. 


7 is 1^6 


" scant. 


8 is s% 


" 


9 is 3^ 


" scant. 


is 1/8 


' full. 


1 is Vs 


' scant. 



12is^ 
16 is i^g 



full, 
full. 



J0BB:^RS' DRIlyl^ GAUGie. 

Sizes of Gauge in Decimals. 



SIZE. 


DEC. 


SIZE. 


DEC. 


1^6- 


.0625 


it 


.29687 


6^4 


.07812 




.3125 


3% 


.09375 


1^ 


.32812 


ii 


.10937 


H 


.34375 


Vs 


.125 


11 


.35937 


ii 


.14062 




.375 


A 


.15625 


II 


.39062 


H 


.17187 


if 


.40625 


1% 


.1875 


11 


.42187 


a 


.20312 


/e 


.4375 


/2 


.21875 


If 


.45312 


ii 


.23437 


if 


.46875 


y* 


.25 


li 


.48437 


ii 


.26562 


V2 


.50 


s% 


.28125 







GAUGES. 



163 



Twist Drill and Steel Drill Rod Gauge. 





^ 2 si 


NEAREST 

SIZE IN 

FRACTIONS 

OF INCH. 




52» 

S S z 


REST 
E IN 
TIONS 
NCH. 




2 o fH 

CO w o 

Q 


REST 
E IN 
TIONS 
INCH. 




5^5 

<n a S^ 


REST 
B IN 
'TIONS 
INCH. 


NOS. 


ii§ 


NOS. 




-< N U " 

M H. <J fc 


NOS. 


«) N ^ . 
H -< •< fe 

g ® ca o 


NOS. 




f.h 


1 


0.228 




16 


0.177 




31 


0.120 




46 


0.080 




o 


0.221 


3^. 


17 


0.173 




32 


0.116 




47 


0.079 


A 


3 


0.213 




18 


0.170 


u 


33 


0.113 




48 


0.076 




4 


0.209 




19 


0.166 




34 


0.111 




49 


0.073 




5 


0.206 




20 


0.161 




35 


0.110 


64 


50 


0.070 




c 


0.204 


hi 


21 


0.159 




36 


0.106 




51 


0.067 






0.201 




22 


0.156 


^% j 


37 


0.104 




52 


0.064 




8 


0.199 




23 


0.154 




38 


0.101 




53 


0.060 


1^5 


9 


0.196 




24 


0.152 




39 


0.100 




54 


0.0.54 




10 


0.194 




25 


0.150 




40 


0.098 




55 


0.052 




11 


0.191 




26 


0.148 




41 


0.096 




56 


0.047 


b\ 


12 


0.188 


."s 


27 


0.145 


1 


42 


0.094 


3^2 


57 


0.044 




i:} 


0.185 




28 


0.141 


b\ 


43 


0.089 




58 


0.042 




14 


0.182 




29 


0.136 




44 


0.086 




, 59 


0.041 




15 


0.180 




30 


0.129 


% 


45 


0.082 




■ 60 


0.040 





Yearly Table of Gas Burning Hours. 

Showing the number of hours from sunset to ten o'clock at night, for each 

month in the year, with the average for each month, and 

the comparative length of the evenings. 



Month. 



June 

July 

May 

August 

Apn'l 

September 

March 

Februar3-.. 
October .... 
November. 
January-.... 
December.. 



Total per 
Month. 



'6 hrs. 55 min. 



83 ' 


' 52 


88 ' 


' 38 


99 ' 


' 16 


102 ' 


' 47 


115 ' 


' 24 


127 ' 


' 06 


132 ' 


' 59 


140 ' 


41 


153 ' 


35 


163 ' 


16 


168 ' 


' 25 



Average per 
Night. 



21 


irs. 34 


2 


" 42 


2 


" 51 


3 


" 12 


3 


" 25 



3 " 51 



06 
55 
31 
07 
16 
26 



Comparative 
Length of 
Eveninirs. 



100 
100 
115 
132 
134 
150 
165 
172 
182 
199 
212 
218 



164 



GLASS. 



WINDOW GlyASS. 



Window glass is sold by the box, which contains, as nearly as possi- 
ble, 50 square feet, whatever may be the size of panes. 

The thickness of ordinary or "single thick" window glass is about 1-16 
of an inch, and of "double thick" nearly % of an inch. 

The tensile strength of common glass varies from 2,000 lbs. to 3,000 
lbs per square inch, and its crushing strength from 6,000 lbs. tolO,0001bs. 



A 


u 


5 


u 


z 


gi 


^ 


ii 


g 


u 




'n . 




m . 




Oj . 




03 . 




M . 


Va 


t X 


• 


E- X 


• 


■r-X 


• 


fr- X 


'A 


HX 


U 


3! O 


w 


a o 


K 


a o 


u 


a c 


u 


a o 


N 


c2 n 


2 


O M 


N 


;; pq 


X 


2 '*' 


N 


o « 






















CO 


kJ 


m 


^ 


5 


I-] 


ai 


S 


53 


n 


6X8 


150 


11 X 24 


27~ 


14 X 18 


29 


18 X 18 


22 


24 X 30 


10^ 


7X 9 


115 


26 


25 


20 


26 


20 


20 


32 


10 


8X 10 


90 


28 


23 


22 


24 


22 


18 


34 


9 


12 


75 


30 


22 


24 


22 


24 


17 


36 


9 


13 


69 


32 


20 


26 


20 


26 


16 


38 


8 


14 


64 


34 


19 


28 


19 


28 


14 


40 


8 


15 


60 


36 


18 


30 


17 


30 


14 


42 


7 


16 


56 


38 


17 


32 


16 


32 


13 


44 


7 


18 


50 


40 


16 


34 


15 


34 


18 


46 


7 


20 


45 


42 


15 


36 


14 


36 


11 


48 


6 


9X11 


73 


12 X 12 


50 


38 


14 


38 


11 


26X26 


11 


12 


67 


13 


46 


40 


13 


40 


10 


28 


10 


13 


62 


14 


43 


42 


12 


42 


10 


30 


9 


14 


57 


15 


40 


44 


12 


44 


9 


32 


9 


15 


53 


16 


38 


46 


11 


46 


9 


34 


8 


16 


50 


18 


34 


15 X 15 


32 


20 X 20 


18 


36 


8 


18 


44 


19 


32 


16 


30 


22 


17 


38 


7 


20 


40 


20 


30 


18 


27 


24 


15 


40 


7 


22 


36 


22 


27 


20 


24 


26 


14 


42 


7 


10 X 12 


60 


24 


25 


22 


2i 


28 


13 


44 


6 


13 


55 


26 


23 


24 


20 


30 


12 


46 


6 


14 


52 


28 


22 


26 


19 


32 


11 


48 


6 


15 


48 


30 


20 


28 


17 


34 


11 


2SX 28 


9 


16 


45 


32 


19 


30 


16 


36 


10 


30 


9 


18 


40 


34 


18 


32 


15 


38 


10 


34 


8 


19 


38 


36 


17 


34 


14 


40 


9 


34 


8 


20 


36 


38 


16 


36 


13 


42 


9 


36 


7 


22 


33 


40 


15 


38 


13 


44 


8 


38 


7 


24 


30 


42 


14 


40 


12 


46 


8 


40 


7 


26 


28 


13 X 15 


37 


42 


11 


22X22 


15 


42 


6 


28 


25 


16 


35 


44 


11 


24 


14 


44 


6 


30 


24 


18 


31 


16 X 16 


28 


26 


13 


46 


6 


32 


22 


20 


28 


18 


25 


28 


12 


48 


5 


34 


21 


22 


25 


20 


23 


30 


11 


30X30 


8 


36 


20 


24 


23 


22 


21 


32 


10 


32 


7 


38 


19 


26 


21 


24 


19 


34 


10 


34 


7 


40 


18 


28 


20 


26 


17 


36 


9 


36 


•7 


42 


17 


30 


18 


28 


16 


38 


9 


38 


7 


11 X 12 


55 


32 


17 


30 


15 


40 


8 


40 


6 


14 


47 


34 


16 


32 


14 


42 


8 


42 


6 


15 


44 


36 


15 


34 


13 


44 


7 


44 


6 


16 


41 


38 


15 


36 


13 


46 


7 


46 


5 


18 


37 


40 


14 


38 


12 


48 


7 


48 


5 


19 


34 


42 


13 


40 


11 


24 X 24 


12 


50 


5 


20 


33 


14 X 14 


37 


42 


11 


26 


12 






22 


30 


16 


32 


44 


10 


28 


11 







In buying anthracite coal, that quality should be selected which has a 
conchoidal fracture and a bright appearance. If it is of a dull appearance 
and shows seams and cracks, it will fly into fragments in the furnace, and 
will not prove economical. With soft coal if the fracture presents a whitish 
film or rusty stains, they are indications of sulphur and pyrites, and such 
coal should be rejected for furnace use. 



165 



Number of Panes Per 50 Feet, or in One Box. 



SIZE. PANES. 



6by H 
7 '• 9 



150 
114 
90 
82 
75 
80 
73 
67 
61 
57 
53 
50 

60 
55 
51 
48 
45 
4-<J 
40 
59 
55 
50 
47 
44 
41 
39 
36 
50 
46 



12 by 14 
■ 15 
16 
17 
18 



14 by 24 

15 " 15 



20 by 24 
20 " 25 
20 " 26 
20 " 28 
27 
24 
26 
28 
28 
30 
32 
30 



SIZE OF WINDOWS. 



l-2LiauTS. 


4 LIGHTS. 


HEIGHT. 


7 X 9 or 1014 


X 18 


3 ft 5 in. 


8x 10 ' 


12 


x20 


3 


9 " 


HX 12 • 


12 


x24 


4 


'5 " 


9x 12 • 


13'.; 


x24 


4 


• 5 '• 


Ox 13 ' 


1314 


x20 


4 


• 9 " 


0x14 ' 


131; 


x28 


5 


• 1 •' 


(!x 15 ' 


13% 


x30 


5 


'5 ■' 


10 X 15 ' 


15 


X 30 


f, 


' 5 " 


10x16 ' 


15 


x32 


5 


'9 " 


10x17 ' 


15 


X 34 


6 


' 1 •' 


lOx 18 ' 


15 


X V{] 


6 


■5 " 


12x18 ' 


18 


x3) 


6 


'5 " 


12x20 • 


IH 


X 40 


7 


' 1 " 


11 X 16 


12 li 


-.Its. 


5 


'9 " 


11 X 17 


]-l 




6 


• 1 " 


llx 18 


12 


•' 


6 


' 5 '• 


14x26 


4 


" 


4 


'9 " 


14x28 


4 


" 


5 


1 " 


14x30 


4 


" 


5 


'5 " 


14 X 32 


1 


" 


r, 


' 9 " 


16 X 32 


4 


" 


5 


' 9 " 


16 X 34 


4 


" 


f. 


• 1 " 


16 X 36 


4 


"' 


n 


' 5 '■ 


8x 10 


24 




.f) 


'5>4- 


8 X 12 


24 


•' 


i\ 


' 5'4-- 


9x12 


24 


•' 


6 


'5V„-' 


9x13 


24 




6 


Ml 4" 



ft. 0% 

" 353 



2 '• 

2 '• 

2 " 

2 " 

2 " 

2 " 

2 " 

2 " 

3 " 
3 •' 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 
3 " 



6?'8 
65^ 

m 



9% 

3V8 
05,; 



II 58 

U% 

3^8 

3% 



-IZE OF CELLAU, 1 LIGHT, AND 4 LIGHT SASH, 



6x 8 3 lights. 


i HEIGHT. 




WIDTH. 


IL 11 14 in. 


1 


n. 9%1U 


6x 8 4 


•• 1114 '• 


2 


'• 3%" 


7x 9 3 


il " 014 <• 


2 


" 0^8 " 


7x 9 4 


1 " 014 " 


2 


" 7% " 


8x10 3 


1 " 114 " 


2 


" 3%" 


8x12 3 " 


1 " 31/4 " 


2 


" 3%" 


8x12 4 


1 " 314 '• 


2 


" 11% " 


'■ 9x12 3 


I " 314 " 


2 


" 6^1" 


9x12 4 


1 " 314 " 


3 


" 3%" 


9x13 3 


1 " 41.4 " 


2 


" 6%'- 


9x13 4 


1 " 414 " 


3 


" 3%'- 


9x15 3 


1 " 6I4 '• 


2 


" 6% " 


10x12 3 


1 " 314 " 


2 


'• 9-/8- 


10x14 3 


1 " 514 " 


2 


" 95^8 '• 


10x15 3 . " 


1 '■ 614 '^ 


2 


" 9S/8- 


10x16 3 


1 " 714 " 


2 


" 95/8" 


10x18 3 " 


1 " 914 " 


2 


" 95/8" 


9x13 1 


1 " 414 " 


1 


• 014" 


10x14 1 


1 " 514 " 


1 


" 114" 


10x15 1 


1 - 614 " 


1 


" II/4" 


7x 9 4 


1 " 91/2 " 


1 


" 51/0 " 


.«-xl0 4 


1 " IIH " 


1 


" 71/2- 


9x12 4 " 


2 '• 314 " 


1 


" 91/2- 


9x13 4 


2 " 5^ " 


1 


" 9/2" 



SKr LIGHT SASH. 



2 fr. 0in.x2 fi. 6 in. 

1 ft. 10io.x3ft Oin. 

2 ft. 0iTi.x3fr.(tin. 



2 ft. 2in.x3f[. Oin. 
2 ft. Oin.x3ft. 6in. 
2ft. 2iii.x3ft. 6in. 



The semi-biLuminous coals occupy rather the smallest space per ton 
weiojht (42.0372 cu. ft.), the anthracite ranking next (42.13 cu. ft.), the 
bituminous coals of Pennsylvania ranking third (42.671 cu. ft.), and next 
the coking coals of Virginia, being the only free burning coals which are 
decidedly l^srhter (45.8804 cu. ft.) indicating that anthracite is the heaviest 
class of coal. 



166 



GRINDSTONES. 



grindston:8s. 

Weights of Grindstones. 

Rule.— Square the diameter (in inches), multiply by thickness (in 
inches), then multiply by decimal .06363. 

Example. — Find the weight of a stone 4 feet 6 inches in diameter and 
7 inches thick. 4 feet 6 inches = 54; square of 54 = 2916; multiplied bj' 7 
= 20412; multiplied by .06363 = answer 1298.815 pounds weight ofstone. 

Grindstone Speeds. 

For Ohio grindstones, from 2,000 to 3,000 feet per minute. 

For Lake Huron stones, from 2,800 to 4,000 feet per minute. 

To find the rate of speed for a grindstone. 

Rule.— Multiply the diam.eter in inches b\' 3.1416 and divide by 12, 
then multiply by the number of revolutions, the product will give the num- 
ber of feet per minute at which the stone is traveling. 

Standard Table of Weights of Ohio Grindstones. 

DIAMETER IN FEET AXD INCHES. 



THICKNESS 






























7-0 


7—1 


7—2 


7-3 


7—4 


7-5 


7-6 


7—7 


7-8 


7-9 


7-10 


7—11 


8-0 


5 inch. 


2244 


2298 


2353 


2408 


2463 


2520 


2577 


2634 


2692 


2751 


2811 


2871 


2932 


5U " 


2469 


2528 


2588 


2648 


2710 


2772 


2834 


2898 


2962 


3026 


3092 


3158 


3223 


6 " 


2693 


27.58 


2823 


2889 


2956 


3024 


3092 


3161 


3231 


8301 


a373 


3445 


3518 


G1/2 " 


2918 


2988 


3058 


3130 


3202 


3276 


33.50 


3424 


3.500 


3577 


3654 


3732 


?811 


7 " 


3142 


.3218 


3294 


;3371 


3449 


a528 


3607 


3688 


3769 


3852 


3935 


4019 


4104 


7»4 " 


336? 


3447 


3529 


3612 


3695 


3780 


3865 


3951 


4039 


4127 


4216 


4306 


4398 


8 " 


3591 


3677 


3764 


3852 


3941 


4032 


4123 


4215 


4308 


4402 


4497 


4594 


4691 


814 " 


3S16 


3907 


4000 


4093 


4188 


4284 


4380 


4478 


4577 


4677 


4778 


4881 


4984 


9 " 


4040 


4137 


4235 


4334 


4434 


4536 


4638 


4742 


4847 


4952 


5060 


5168 


5277 


91 2 " 


426.5 


4:367 


4470 


4575 


4680 


4788 


4896 


5005 


5116 


5228 


5341 


5455 


5570 


10 


4489 


4597 


4706 


4816 


4927 


5040 


51.54 


5269 


53S5 


5503 


5622 


5742 


5864 


1-^2 " 


4714 


4827 


4944 


5056 


5173 


5292 


.5411 


5532 


4654 


5778 


5903 


6029 


6157 


11 


4938 


5056 


5176 


5297 


5420 


5.544 


5669 


5796 


5924 


6053 


6184 


6316 


&i50 


lP/2 " 


5163 


5286 


5411 


5538 


5666 


5796 


5927 


6059 


6193 


6328 


&465 


6603 


6743 


12 " 


5387 


5516 


.5647 


5779 


5912 


6048 


6184 


6322 


6462 


6603 


6746 


6891 


70.36 


12!4 •' 


5611 


5746 


5882 


6020 


61.59 


6300 


6442 


6586 


6782 


6879 


7027 


7178 


7330 


13 " 


5836 


5976 


6117 


6260 


6415 


6552 


6690 


6849 


7001 


7154 


7308 


7465 


7623 


1314 " 


6060 


6206 


6353 


6501 


6651 


6804 


6957 


7113 


7270 


7429 


7589 


7752 


7916 


14 


6285 


6436 


6588 


6742 


6S98 


70.56 


7215 


7376 


7539 


7704 


7871 


8039 


8209 


UYz " 


6509 


6665 


6823 


6983 


7144 


7308 


7473 


7fi40 


7809 


7979 


8152 


8326 


a502 


15 " 


6734 


6895 


7059 


7224 


7391 


7560 


7731 


7903 


8078 


8254 


8433 


8613 


8796 


1514 " 


6958 


7125 


7294 


7464 


7637 


7812 


7988 


8169 


8347 


8529 


8714 


8901 


9089 


16 


71p3 


7355 


7529 


7705 


7883 


8064 


8246 


8430 


8616 


8805 


8995 


9188 


9382 



All stones over 200 pounds are sold by measurement weight; less 
than 200 pounds, by actual w^eight on scales. 



The pressure per square inch (14.7 IIds. at the level of the sea), was dis- 
covered bv Torricelli in 1645. 



GEARING. 



16' 



GEARING. 










Teeth of Wheels- 


-Cast 


Iron 


• 






d 


Table Showing the Horse-Power that may 


be Transmitted by each 


inch of Breadth 








of Tooth, with Different Velocities and Pitches. 






ii 


PITCH OF TEETH IN INCHE3. 


H f^ 


% 


I 


1J4 


m 


IK 


2 


2H 


3 


4 


5 


6 




h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


h.p. 


hp. 


h.p. 


}i 


.008 


.015 


.023 


.033 


.045 


.06 


.093 


.135 


.24 


.37 


.54 


Vi 


.017 


.03 


.047 


.67 


.09 


.12 


.18 


.27 


.43 


.75 


.11 '8 


u 


.025 


.045 


.07 


.101 


.138 


.18 


.281 


.4 


72 


1.12 


1.62 


1 


.033 


.06 


.094 


.135 


.184 


.24 


.375 


.54 


96 


1.5 


2.16 • 


2 


.067 


.12 


.188 


.27 


.366 


.48 


.75 


1.08 


1.9 


3.0 


4.3 


3 


.10 


.18 


.28 


.40 


.55 


.72 


t.l 


1.6 


2.8 


4.5 


6.4 


4 


.13 


.24 


.37 


.54 


.73 


.96 


15 


2.1 


3.8 


6. 


8.6 


5 


.17 


m 


.47 


.67 


.91 


1.2 


1.8 


2.7 


4.8 


7.5 


10.8 


6 


.20 


.36 


.56 


.81 


1.1 


1.4 


2.2 


3.2 


5.7 


9. 


U.9 


7 


.23 


.42 


.65 


.94 


1.28 


1.68 


2.6 


3.7 


6.7 


10.5 


15.1 


8 


.27 


.48 


.75 


1.1 


1.4 


1.9 


3. 


4.3 


7.6 


12. 


17.2 


9 


.30 


.54 


.8t 


1.2 


1.6 


2.1 


3.3 


4.8 


8.6 


13.5 


19.4 


10 


.33 


.6 


.94 


1.35 


1.8 


2.4 


3.7 


54 


9.6 


15. 


21.6 


12 


.40 


.72 


1.1 


1.6 


2.1 


2.8 


4.5 


6.4 


11.5 


18. 


259 


14 


.47 


.84 


1.3 


1.8 


2.5 


3.3 


5.2 


7.5 


13.4 


21. 


30.2 


16 


.54 


.96 


1.5 


2.1 


2.9 


38 


6. 


8.6 


153 


24. 


34.5 


18 


.61 


1.1 


1.7 


2.4 


3.3 


4.3 


6.7 


9.7 


17.3 


27. 


38.9 


20 


.66 


1.2 


1.9 


2.7 


3.6 


4.8 


7.5 


10.8 


19.2 


30. 


43.2 


22 


.74 


1.3 


2.1 


2.9 


4. 


53 


8.2 


11.9 


21.1 


33. 


47.5 


24 


.81 


1.4 


2.2 


3.2 


4.4 


57 


9. 


12.9 


23. 


36. 


51.8 


26 


.88 


1.5 


2.4 


3.5 


4.7 


6.2 


9.7 


14. 


24 9 


39. 


56.1 


28 


.95 


1.6 


2.6 


3.7 


51 


6.7 


10.5 


151 


26.9 


42. 


60.4 


hO 


1.01 


1.8 


2.8 


4. 


5.5 


7.2 


11.2 


16.2 


28.8 


45. 


64.8 


35 


1.2 


2.1 


3.3 


4.7 


6.4 


8.4 


13.1 


18.9 


33.6 


52.5 


75.6 


40 


1.3 


2.3 


3.7 


5.4 


7.3 


9.6 


15. 


21.6 


38.4 


60. 


86.4 



The diametral pitch of a gear is the number of teeth to each inch of its 
pitch diameter. 

The circular pitch is the distance from the center of one tooth to the 
center of the tooth, measured along the pitch circle. 



168 



GEARING 



Table of Pitch Diameters. 

FOR ONE INCH CIRCULAR PITCH. 





u 


1 


u 

so 


w 


ti 

S « - 


w 


11 


10 


3.18 


38 


12.10 


66 


21.02 


94 


29.93 


11 


3.50 


I 39 


12.42 


67 


21.33 


95 


30.25 


12 


3.82 


40 


12.74 


' 68 


21.65 


96 


30.56 


13 


4.14 


! 41 


13.05 


69 


21.97 


97 


30.88 


14 


4.46 


42 


13.37 


■ 70 


22.29 


98 


31.20 


15 


4.78 


43 


13.66 


71 


22.60 


99 


31.52 


16 


5.09 


44 


14.00 


72 


22.92 


100 


31.84 


17 


5.40 


45 


14.33 


73 


23.24 




18 


5.73 


46 


14.65 


74 


23.56 




19 


6.05 


47 


14.96 


75 


23.88 


'art ^15 


20 


6.37 


48 


15 28 


76 


24.20 




21 


6 69 


49 


15.60 


77 


24.52 


1 1 sis 


22 


7.00 


50 


15.92 


78 


24.83 


§ ^ ^ o a5 


23 


7.32 


51 


16.24 


79 


25.15 




24 


7.64 


52 


16.56 


80 


25.47 


25 


7.96 


53 


16.87 


81 


25.79 


^ >^-g ° 2i S 


26 


8.28 


54 


17.19 


82 


26.10 




27 


8.60 


55 


17.52 


83 


26.43 


28 


8.90 


56 


17.83 


84 


26.74 


a 3 V- g rQ a 


29 


9.23 


57 


18.15 


85 


27.06 


30 


9.55 


58 


18.47 


86 


27.38 


-5 £ t^ ^ 2 


31 


9.87 


59 


18.78 


1 87 


27.70 


32 


10.19 


60 


19.10 


88 


28.02 


';:^ r: rC "^ I: 


33 


10.50 


61 


19.42 


89 


28.34 


34 


10.82 


62 


19.74 


90 


28.65 


35 


11.14 


63 


20.06 


91 


28.97 


^ ^^^^ i 


36 


11.46 


64 


20.38 


92 


29.29 




37 


. 11.78 


65 


20.69 


93 


29.60 





A sharp point of hardened steel will cut glass nearly as well as a dia- 
mond, Take an old worn-out three-cornered file, grind the end to a three- 
cornered point, heat it red hot, and immediately plunge it into a mixture of 
snow and salt. Retouch it on the stone to remove the scale, and it is 
read\^ for use. If rightlj^ done it will give very good satisfaction. In using 
it hold the file nearly perpendicular, slightly inclined forward, and with a 
gentle pressure draw it rapidly over the glass without changing its inclina- 
tion to the surface. In cutting thick glass it is safer to cut on both sides 
before attempting to separate the pieces, but thin glass may be cut with 
the greatest facility. 

When the point becomes dull from use it will produce only a ragged 
surface — scratch — but will not cut. It then needs regrinding. 



GEAR WHEELS. 



169 



Table Showing the Diameter of a Wheel for a Given Pitch, or 
the Pitch for a Given Diameter. 











< 


< 


1 






i 

< 




^ 




1^ 




o 


s 


% 















O 




o 


o 




O 




o 


o 


d 




"A 




n 


tf 


6 


"A 




H 


S 


•A 




< 




o 


< 


A 


< 




o 


<l 




Q 




,, 








o / 








3 


60 






1.1547 


0.9549 


68 


2 38 


49 


21.6537 


21.6450 


4 


45 






1.4142 


1.2731 


69 


2 36 


31 


21.9717 


21.9633 


5 


36 






1.7013 


1.5915 


70 


2 34 


17 


22.2895 


22.2816 


6 


30 






2.0000 


1.9098 


71 


2 32 


7 


22.6068 


22.5999 


7 


25 


42 


51 


2.3046 


2.2249 


72 


2 30 




22.9256 


22.9182 


8 


22 


30 




2.6131 


2.5464 


73 


2 27 


57 


23.2430 


23.2365 


9 


20 






2.9238 


2.8647 


74 


2 25 


57 


23.5613 


23.5548 


10 


18 






3.2361 


3.1830 


75 


2 24 




23.8808 


23.8731 


11 


16 


21 


5 


3.5495 


3.5014 


76 


2 22 


6 


24.1993 


24.1914 


12 


15 






3.8637 


3.8197 


77 


2 20 


16 


24.5155 


24.5098 


n 


13 


50 


46 


4.1786 


4.1.S80 


78 


2 18 


28 


24.8340 


24.8281 


14 


12 


51 


26 


4.4939 


4.-I563 


79 


2 16 


43 


25.1517 


25.1464 


15 


12 






4.8097 


4.7746 


80 


2 15 




25.4713 


25.4647 


16 


11 


15 




5.1258 


5.09'^ 


81 


2 13 


20 


25.7896 


25.7830 


17 


10 


a5 


18 


5.4421 


5.4118 


82 


2 11 


42 


26.1092 


26.1013 


18 


10 






5.7588 


5 72P5 


83 


2 10 


72 


26.4268 


26.4196 


19 


9 


28 


26 


6.0756 


6.0478 


84 


2 8 


34 


26.7452 


26.7319 


20 


9 






6.3924 


6.3661 


85 


2 7 


4 


27.0608 


27.0562 


21 


8 


34 


17 


6.7095 


6.6844 


86 


2 5 


35 


27.3803 


87.3745 


28 


8 


10 


f5 


7.0266 


7.0028 


87 


2 4 


8 


27.71 00 


27.6928 


23 


7 


49 


34 


7.3439 


7.3211 


88 


2 2 


44 


28.0158 


28.0112 


24 


7 


30 




7.6613 


7.6394 


89 


2 1 


21 


28.3351 


28.3295 


25 


7 


12 




7.9787 


7.9577 


90 


o 




28.6587 


28.6478 


26 


6 


55 


23 


8.2963 


8.2760 


91 


1 58 


41 


28.9715 


28.9661 


27 


6 


40 




8.6138 


8.5943 


1 92 


1 57 


23 


29.2921 


29.2844 


28 


6 


25 


43 


8.9314 


8 9126 


93 


1 56 


8 


29.6074 


29 6027 


29 


6 


13 


25 


9 2490 


9.2309 


94 


1 54 


54 


29 9250 


29.9210 


30 


6 






9.5668 


9.5492 


95 


1 53 


41 


30.2452 


30.2393 


31 


5 


48 


23 


9.8846 


9.8675 


96 


1 52 


30 


30.5632 


30.5576 


32 


5 


37 


30 


10.2023 


10.1858 


97 


1 51 


20 


30.8833 


30.8755 


33 


5 


27 


16 


10.5203 


10..50419 


98 


1 50 


12 


31.2008 


31.1912 


34 


5 


17 


39 


10.8379 


10.8225 


99 


1 49 


5 


31.5202 


31.5126 


35 


5 


8 


34 


11.1560 


11.1408 


100 


1 48 




31.83(12 


31.8309 


36 


5 






11.4737 


11.4591 


101 


1 46 


56 


32.1537 


32.1492 


37 




51 


54 


11.7913 


11.7774 


102 


1 45 


53 


32 4725 


32.4675 


38 




44 


13 


12.1093 


12 0957 


103 


1 44 


51 


32.7923 


32.7858 


39 




36 


55 


12.4278 


12.4140 


104 


1 43 


51 


33 1080 


33.1041 


40 




30 




12.7455 


12.7323 


105 


1 42 


51 


33.4298 


33.4224 


41 




23 


25 


13.0634 


13.0506 


106 


1 41 


53 


33.7449 


33.7407 


48 




17 


9 


13.3820 


13.3«89 1 


107 


1 40 


56 


34.0644 


34.0590 


43 




11 


10 


13.6992 


13.6872 1 


108 


1 40 




34.3823 


34.3773 


44 




5 


27 


14.0178 


14.0056 1 


109 


1 39 


5 


34.7003 


34.6956 


45 








14.3356 


14.3239 


110 


1 38 


11 


35.0183 


35.0140 


46 


3 


54 


47 


11,6536 


1-1.6422 


111 


1 37 


18 


35.3361 


35 3323 


47 


3 


49 


47 


14.9720 


14.9605 


112 


1 36 


26 


35.6536 


35.6506 


48 


3 


45 




15.2898 


15.2788 


113 


1 35 


35 


35.9706 


35.96a5 


49 


3 


40 


24 


1.5.6084 


15.7971 


114 


1 34 


44 


36.2932 


.36.2872 


50 


3 


36 




15.9260 


15.9154 


115 


1 33 


55 


36.6088 


36.6055 


51 


3 


31 


46 


16.2439 


16.2.337 


116 


1 33 


6 


36.9298 


36.9238 


52 


3 


27 


42 


16.5616 


16.5.520 


117 


1 32 


18 


37.2498 


37.2421 


53 


3 


23 


46 


16.8809 


16.8703 1 


118 


1 31 


32 


37.5618 


37.5004 


54 


3 


20 




17.1984 


17.1886 


119 


1 30 


45 


37.8859 


37.8787 


55 


3 


16 


22 


17.5163 


17.5071 


120 


I 30 




38.2015 


38.1970 


56 


3 


12 


51 


17.83.^)3 


17.8253 


121 


1 29 


15 


38.5225 


38.5154 


57 


3 


9 


28 


18.1535 


18.1436 


122 


1 28 


31 


38.8415 


38.8337 


58 


3 


6 


12 


18.4717 i 


18.4619 


123 


1 27 


48 


39.1585 


39.1520 


59 


3 


3 


3 


18.7892 i 


18.7802 


124 


1 87 


6 


39. 475 i 


39.4703 


60 


3 






19 1073 1 


19.0985 


125 


1 26 


24 


39.7929 


39.7886 


61 


2 


57 


3 


19.4254 


19.4168 


126 


1 25 


43 


40.1101 


40.1069 


62 


2 


54 


12 


19.7429 


19.7351 


127 


1 25 


2 


40.4323 


40.4252 


63 


2 


51 


26 


20.0613 ! 


20.0534 


128 


1 24 


22 


40 7517 


40.7435 


64 


2 


48 


45 


20.3800 


20.3717 


129 


1 23 


43 


41.0681 


41.0618 


65 


2 


46 


9 


20.6987 i 


20 6900 


130 


1 23 


5 


41.3811 


41.3801 


66 


2 


43 


38 


21.0168 


21.0084 


131 


1 22 


27 


41.6989 


41.6984 


67 


2 


41 


12 


21.3338 ' 


21.3267 


132 


1 21 


49 


42.0217 


42.0168 



170 



GEAR WHEELS. 



Table Showing the Diameter of a Wheel for a Given Pitch, or 
the Pitch for a Given Diameter. 

{Continued,) 









S 










^ 




^ 






< 


S 


» 
» 






-0 


^ 


H 






s 


< 


&< 






Q 


< 


b 


» 




p 


fj 


^ 


^ 




Q 


Q 


O 


^i 




c: 




O 


J 




K 






o 




■ o 


u 




o 




O 


O 


6 


\Zi 




ta 


s; 


6 


% 




S 


BS 


>S! 


< 




u 


■< 


^ 


< 




u 


■< 


133 


, 

1 21 


12 


42.3407 


42.3351 


167 


/ 

1 4 


40 


53.1642 


53.1576 


134 


1 20 


c6 


42.6559 


42.6534 


168 


1 4 


17 


53.4811 


53.4759 


135 


1 20 




42.9759 


42.9717 


169 


1 3 


54 


53.8019 


53.7942 


136 


1 19 


25 


43.2913 


43.2900 


170 


1 3 


32 


54.1124 


54.1125 


137 


1 18 


50 


43.6116 


43.6083 


171 


1 3 


9 


54.4408 


54.4398 


138 


1 18 


16 


43.9273 


43.9206 


172 


1 2 


47 


54.7587 


54.7491 


139 


1 17 


42 


44.2476 


44.2449 


173 


1 2 


26 


55.0657 


55.0674 


140 


1 17 


9 


44.5630 


44.5600 


174 


1 2 


4 


55.3910 


55.3857 


141 


1 ]6 


36 


44.8829 


44.8815 


175 


1 1 


43 


55.7051 


55.7040 


142 


1 16 


3 


45.2074 


45.1998 


176 


1 1 


22 


56.0227 


56.0224 


143 


1 15 


31 


45.5267 


45.5182 


177 


1 1 




56.3440 


56.3407 


144 


1 15 




45.8403 


45.8365 


178 


1 


40 


56.6690 


56.6590 


145 


1 14 


2? 


46.1582 


46.1548 


179 


1 


20 


56.9820 


56.9773 


146 


1 13 


58 


46.4805 


46.4731 


180 






57.2987 


57.2956 


147 


1 13 


28 


46.7968 


46.7914 


181 


59 


40 


57.6187 


57.6139 


148 


1 12 


58 


47.1174 


47.1997 


182 


59 


20 


57.9424 


57.9322 


149 


1 12 


29 


47.4316 


47.4280 


183 


59 


1 


58.2532 


58.25(15 


150 


1 12 




47.7500 


47.7463 


184 


55 


42 


.58.5675 


58.5688 


151 


1 11 


31 


48.0726 


48.0646 


185 


58 


23 


58.8a52 


58.8871 


352 


1 11 


3 


48.3883 


48.3829 


186 


58 


4 


59.2063 


.59.2055 


153 


1 10 


35 


48.7082 


48.7012 


187 


57 


45 


59.5308 


59.5238 


154 


1 10 


8 


49.0207 


49.0196 


188 


57 


27 


59.8417 


59.8421 


155 


1 9 


41 


49.3372 


49.3375 


189 


57 


9 


60.1558 


60.1604 


156 


1 9 


14 


49.6579 


49.6562 


190 


56 


51 


60.4732 


60.4787 


157 


1 8 


47 


49.9826 


49.9745 


191 


56 


33 


60.7940 


60.7970 


158 


1 8 


21 


50.2995 


50.2928 


192 


56 


15 


61.1182 


61.1153 


159 




55 


50.6204 


50.6111 


193 


55 


58 


61.4276 


61.4336 


160 


1 7 


30 


50.9328 


50.9294 


194 


55 


40 


61.7586 


61.7519 


161 




5 


51.2492 


51.2460 


195 


55 


23 


62.0745 


62.0702 


]62 


1 6 


40 


51.5694 


51.5660 


196 


55 


6 


62.3937 


62.3885 


163 


1 6 


15 


51.8937 


51.8843 


197 


.54 


49 


62.7161 


62.7069 


164 


1 5 


51 


52.2089 


52.2026 


198 


54 


33 


63.0227 


63.0252 


165 


1 5 


27 


52.5279 


52.5210 


199 


54 


16 


63.3517 


63.3435 


166 


1 5 


4 


52.8374 


52.8393 


200 


54 




63.6646 


63.6618 



To Find the Pitch Diameter of a Gear Wheel. 

Rule: Divide the number of teeth by the pitch. 

This rule applies only when it is required to find the pitch diameter 
from the diametral pitch. 

When the circular pitch is used the rule is: 

Multiph^ the pitch and number of teeth together, and divide the prod- 
uct by 3.1416. 

When the chordal pitch is used, the rule is: 

Divide 180 degrees by the number of teeth. Find the sine of the quo- 
tient, and divide it into the given pitch. The quotient will be the pitch 
diameter of the gear. 

Note: See table of natural sines for sine of angle found by dividing 
180 degrees by the number of teeth. 



GEAR WHEELS. 171 



To Find the Diameter of a Gear Blank, the Pitch and the 
Number of Teeth Being Given. 

Figuring from the diametral pitch. 

Rule: Divide the number of teeth by the pitch the quotient will be 
the pitch diameter. 

Figunng from the circular pitch. 

Rule: Multiply the number of teeth by the pitch and divide the prod- 
uct'by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the pitch diameter. 

Figuring from the chordal pitch. 

Rule: Divide 180 degrees by the number of teeth. Find the sine of 
the quotient. Divide the pitch by the sine, and the quotient will be the 
pitch diameter of gear blank. 

To Find the Pitch of a Gear, When the Diameter Pitch is 

Wanted. 

Rule: Add 2 to the number of teeth and divide by the whole diameter 
of gear. 

When the Circular Pitch is Wanted. 

Rule: .Divide the circumference of the pitch circle by the number of 
teeth. 

When the Chordal Pitch is Wanted. 

Rule: Divide 180 degrees b}^ the number of teeth. Take the sine of 
this angle and multiph' it b}^ the pitch diameter. 

To find outside diameter of spur gear blanks, add two parts of the 
pitch to the pitch diameter; thus, for an 8-pitch gear of forty teeth the out- 
side diameter of blank is 42-8ths, equal to 5^ inches; for a 12-pitch gear of 
thirty-six teeth the outside diameter of blank is 38-1 2ths, equal to 3^ inches; 
tor a 16-pitch gear of fortj^-six teeth the outside diameter of blank is 48- 
16ths, equals 3 inches. This rule applies to gears of any pitch, and if al- 
ways at hand will insure blanks of the right size, saving time and aimoy- 
ance. 

The diametral pitch of a gear is the number of teeth to each inch of its 
pitch diameter, and when understood is so simple and convenient that fev/ 
gears are now cut by the almost obsolete circular pitch method. 

To obtain the distance between the centers of two gears, add the num- 
ber of teeth together and divide half the sum by the diametral pitch, thus: 
If two gears have 40 and 30 teeth respectively, and are 5-pitch, add 40 and 
30, making 70, divide by 2 and then divide this quotient 35 by the dia- 
metral pitch 5, and the result, 7 inches, is the distance between centers 

Spur gear blanks are always of the same denomination as the pitch. 
The diameter of 8-pitch gear cannot be in lOths or 12ths of an inch, nor a 
16 pitch in 20ths or 40ths. but a 6-pitch gear is always in 6ths, a 10-pitch 
in lOths, a 48 in 48ths, etc. 



172 



GRADING. 



GRADING. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG. 

Table 1. Level Cuttings. Roadway 14 feet wide, side-slopes lli to 1. For single 
track embankment. 



HtlGHT 

IN FT 


.0 


.1 


.2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 


.8 


.•., 




C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C.~Yd7 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yd.-^. 







5,24 


10.6 


16.1 


21.6 


27 3 


33.1 


39.0 


45.0 


51.2 


1 


57.4 


63.8 


70.2 


76.8 


83.5 


90^3 


97.2 


104.2 


111.3 


118.6 


2 


125.9 


133.4 


141.0 


148.6 


156.4 


164.4 


172.4 


180.5 


138.7 


197 1 


3 


205.6 


214.1 


222.8 


231.6 


240.5 


249.5 


258.7 


267.9 


277 3 


288.7 


4 


296.3 


306.0 


315.8 


325.7 


335.7 


345.8 


356.1 


366.4 


376.9 


387.5 


5 


3ij8.1 


408.9 


419.9 


430.9 


442.0 


453.2 


464.6 


476.1 


487.6 


499.3 


6 


511.1 


523.0 


535.0 


547.2 


559.4 


571.8 


584.2 


596.8 


609.5 


6'?2.3 


7 


635.2 


648.2 


661.3 


674.6 


687.9 


701 4 


714.9 


728.6 


742.4 


756.3 


8 


770.3 


784.5 


798.7 


813.1 


827.5 


842.1 


856.8 


871.6 


886.5 


901 5 


9 


916.7 


931.9 


947.3 


962.7 


978.3 


994.0 


1010 


1026 


1042 


1058 


10 


1074 


1090 


1107 


1123 


1140 


1157 


1174 


1191 


1208 


1225 


11 


1243 


1260 


1278 


1295 


1313 


1331 


1349 


1367 


1385 


1404 


12 


H22 


1441 


1459 


1478 


1497 


1516 


1535 


1554 


1574 


1593 


13 


1613 


1633 


1652 


1672 


1692 


1712 


1733 


1753 


1773 


1794 


14 


1815 


1835 


1856 


1877 


1898 


1920 


1941 


1962 


1984 


2006 


15 


2028 


2050 


2072 


2094 


2116 


2138 


2161 


21 h3 


2206 


2229 


16 


2252 


2275 


2298 


2381 


2344 


2368 


2391 


2415 


2439 


2163 


17 


. 2487 


2511 


2535 


2559 


25S4 


2608 


2633 


2658 


26-3 


27'08 


18 


2733 


2759 


2784 


2809 


2835 


2861 


2886 


2912 


2v^38 


2964 


19 


2991 


3017 


3044 


3070 


3097 


3124 


3151 


3178 


3205 


3232 


20 


3259 


3287 


3314 


3342 


3370 


3398 


3426 


3454 


3482 


3510 


21 


3539 


3567 


3596 


3625 


3654 


3683 


3712 


3741 


3771 


3800 


22 


3830 


3859 


3889 


3919 


3949 


3979 


4009 


4040 


4070 


4101 


23 


4132 


4162 


4193 


4224 


4255 


4287 


4318 


4349 


,4381 


4413 


24 


4444 


4476 


4508 


4541 


4573 


4605 


4638 


4670 


4703 


4736 


25 


4769 


4802 


4835 


4868 


4901 


4935 


4968 


5002 


5038 


5070 


26 


5104 


5138 


5172 


5206 


5241 


5275 


5310 


5345 


5380 


5415 


27 


5450 


5485 


5521 


5556 


5592 


5627 


5663 


5699 


5735 


5771 


28 


5807 


5844 


5880 


5917 


5953 


5990 


6027 


6064 


6101 


6139 


29 


6176 


6213 


6251 


6289 


6326 


6364 


6402 


6440 


6479 


6517 


30 


6556 


6594 


6633 


6672 


6711 


6750 


6789 


6828 


6867 


6907 


31 


6946 


6986 


7026 


7066 


7106 


7146 


7186 


7226 


7267 


7307 


32 


7348 


7389 


7430 


7471 


7512 


7553 


7595 


7636 


7678 


7719 


33 


7761 . 


7803 


7845 


7887 


7929 


7972 


8014 


8057 


8099 


8142 


34 


8185 


8228 


8271 


8315 


8358 


8401 


8445 


8489 


8532 


8576 


35 


8620 


8664 


87U9 


8753 


8798 


8842 


8887 


8932 


8976 


9022 


36 


9067 


9112 


9157 


9203 


9248 


9294 


9340 


9386 


9432 


9478 


37 


9524 


9570 


9617 


9663 


9710 


9757 


9804 


9851 


9898 


9945 


38 


9993 


10040 


10088 


1U135 


10183 


10231 


10279 


10327 


10375 


10424 


39 


10472 


10521 


10569 


10618 


10667 


10716 


10765 


10815 


10861 


10913 


40 


10963 


11013 


11062 


11112 


11162 


11212 


11263 


11313 


11364 


11414 


41 


11465 


11516 


11567 


11618 


11669 


11720 


11771 


11823 


11873 


11926 


42 


11978 


12029 


12081 


12134 


12186 


12238 


12291 


12343 


12S96 


12449 


43 


12502 


12555 


12608 


12661 


12715 


12768 


12822 


12875 


12929 


12983 


44 


13037 


13091 


13145 


13200 


13254 


13309 


13363 


13418 


13473 


13528 


45 


13583 


13639 


13694 


13749 


13805 


13861 


13916 


13972 


14028 


14084 


46 


14141 


14197 


14254 


14310 


14367 


14424 


14480 


14537 


14595 


14652 


47 


14709 


14767 


14824 


14882 


14940 


14998 


15056 


15114 


15172 


15230 


48 


15289 


15347 


15406 


15465 


15524 


15583 


15642 


15701 


15761 


If 820 


49 


15880 


15939 


15999 


18059 


16119 


16179 


16239 


16300 


16360 


16421 


50 


16481 


16542 


16603 


16664 


16725 


16787 


16848 


16909 


16971 


17033 


51 


17094 


17156 


17218 


17280 


17343 


17405 


17467 


17530 


17593 


17656 


52 


17719 


17782 


17845 


17908 


17971 


18035 


18098 


18162 


18226 


182911 


53 


18354 


18418 


18482 


18546 


18611 


18675 


18740 


18805 


18870 


18935 


54 


19000 


19065 


19131 


19196 


19262 


19327 


19393 


19459 


19525 


19591 


55 


19657 


19724 


19790 


19857 


19923 


19990 


20057 


20124 


20191 


20259 


56 


20326 


20393 


20461 


20529 


20596 


20664 


20732 


20800 


20869 


20V37 


57 


21005 


21074 


21143 


21212 


21280 


21349 


21419 


21488 


21557 


21627 


58 


21696 


21766 


21836 


21908 


21976 


22046 


22116 


22186 


22257 


22327 


59 


22398 


22469 


22540 


22611 


226'<2 


!^2753 


22825 


22896 


22988 


23039 


60 


23111 


23183 


23255 


23327 


23399 


:^34T2 


23544 


23617 


23689 


23762 



For continuation to IGO feet see Table 7. 



GKAD.NG. 



173 



Grading.— Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG. 

Table 2. Level cuttings. Roadway 24 feet wide, side-slopes I'i to 1. For double- 
track embankment. 



HEIGHT 


.0 


.1 


.2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 


.8 


.9 


IN FT 
























C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. YMs 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 







8.94 


18.0 


27.2 


36.4 


45.8 


55 3 


64.9 


74.7 


84 5 


1 


94.4 


104.5 


114.7 


124.9 


135.3 


145.8 


1.56.4 


167 2 


178.0 


188 9 


2 


200.0 


211.2 


222.4 


2.33.8 


245.3 


2.56.9 


268.6 


280.5 


292.4 


304 4 


3 


316.6 


3:28.9 


341.2 


353.7 


366.3 


379.0 


391.9 


404.8 


417.8 


431.0 


4 


444.4 


4.^7.8 


471.3 


484.9 


498.6 


5 '2.4 


526.4 


540.4 


554.6 


568.8 


5 


583.3 


597.8 


612.4 


627.1 


642.0 


656.9 


671.9 


687.1 


702.3 


717.7 


6 


733.3 


748.9 


764.7 


780.5 


796.4 


812.5 


828.7 


844.9 


861.3 


877.8 


7 


894.4 


9112 


928.0 


944.9 


962.0 


979.2 


996.4 


1014 


1031 


1049 


8 


1067 


1085 


1102 


1121 


1139 


1157 


1175 


1194 


1212 


1231 


9 


1250 


1269 


12K8 


1307 


1326 


1346 


1365 


1.385 


1405 


1425 


10 


1444 


1465 


1485 


1505 


1525 


1546 


1566 


1.587 


1608 


1629 


11 


1650 


1671 


1692 


1714 


17.35 


1757 


1779 


1800 


1822 


1845 


12 


1867 


1889 


1911 


1934 


19.'56 


1979 


2002 


2025 


2048 


2071 


13 


2094 


2118 


2141 


2165 


2189 


2213 


2236 


2261 


2285 


2309 


14 


2333 


2358 


2382 


2407 


2432 


2457 


2462 


2507 


2532 


2558 


15 


2583 


2009 


2635 


2661 


2686 


2713 


2739 


2765 


2791 


2818 


16 


2844 


2871 


2898 


2925 


2952 


2979 


3006 


3034 


3061 


3089 


17 


3117 


3145 


3172 


3201 


3229 


3257 


3285 


3314 


3342 


3371 


18 


3400 


3429 


3458 


3487 


3516 


3546 


3575 


3605 


3635 


3665 


19 


3694 


3725 


3755 


3785 


3815 


3846 


3876 


3907 


3938 


3969 


20 


4000 


4031 


4062 


4094 


4125 


4157 


4189 


4221 


4252 


4285 


21 


4317 


4349 


4381 


4414 


4446 


4479 


4512 


4545 


4.578 


4611 


22 


4644 


4678 


4711 


4745 


47i-9 


4813 


4846 


4881 


4915 


4949 


23 


4983 


5018 


50.52 


5087 


5122 


5157 


5192 


5227 


5262 


5298 


24 


5333 


5369 


5405 


5441 


5476 


5513 


5549 


5585 


5621 


5658 


25 


5694 


5731 


5768 


5805 


5842 


5879 


5916 


5954 


5991 


6029 


26 


6067 


6105 


6142 


6181 


6219 


6257 


6295 


6334 


6372 


6411 


27 


6450 


6489 


6528 


6567 


6606 


6646 


6685 


6725 


6765 


6885 


28 


6844 


6885 


6925 


6965 


7005 


7046 


7086 


7127 


7168 


7209 


29 


7250 


7291 


7332 


7374 


7415 


7457 


7499 


7541 


7582 


7625 


30 


7667 


7709 


7751 


7794 


7836 


7879 


7922 


7965 


8008 


8051 


31 


8094 


8138 


8181 


8225 


8269 


8313 


8356 


8401 


8445 


8489 


32 


8533 


8578 


8622 


8667 


8712 


8757 


8802 


8847 


8892 


8938 


33 


8983 


9029 


9075 


9121 


9166 


9212 


9259 


9305 


9351 


9398 


34 


9444 


9491 


9538 


9585 


9632 


9679 


9726 


9774 


9822 


9822 


35 


9917 


9965 


10012 


10061 


10109 


10157 


10205 


10254 


10302 


10351 


36 


10400 


10449 


10498 


10547 


10596 


10646 


10695 


10745 


10795 


10845 


37 


10894 


109-15 


10995 


11045 


11095 


11146 


11196 


11247 


11298 


11349 


38 


11400 


11451 


11502 


11.554 


11605 


11657 


11709 


11761 


11812 


11865 


39 


11917 


11969 


12021 


12074 


12126 


12179 


12232 


12285 


12.338 


12391 


40 


12444 


12498 


12551 


12605 


12659 


12713 


12766 


12821 


12875 


12929 


41 


12983 


13U38 


13092 


13147 


13202 


13257 


13312 


13367 


13422 


13478 


42 


ia533 


13589 


13645 


13701 


13756 


1.3813 


1.3869 


13925 


13981 


14038 


43 


14094 


14151 


143 -8 


14265 


14S22 


14379 


14436 


14494 


14551 


14609 


44 


14667 


14725 


14782 


14840 


14899 


14957 


1.5015 


1.5074 


151.S2 


15191 


45 


1.5250 


15309 


1.5368 


1.5427 


15486 


1.5.546 


15605 


1.5G65 


15725 


15785 


46 


158 14 


1.5905 


15965 


16025 


16085 


16146 


16206 


16267 


16.328 


16389 


47 


164.50 


16511 


16572 


16634 


16695 


16757 


16819 


16881 


16942 


17005 


48 


17067 


17129 


17191 


17254 


17316 


17379 


17442 


17505 


17-68 


17631 


49 


17694 


17758 


17821 


17885 


17949 


18013 


18076 


18141 


18205 


18269 


50 


18333 


18398 


18462 


18527 


18592 


18657 


18722 


18787 


18852 


18918 


51 


18983 


19049 


19115 


19181 


19246 


19313 


19379 


19445 


19511 


19578 


52 


19644 


19711 


19778 


19845 


19912 


19979 


20046 


20114 


20181 


20249 


53 


20317 


20.385 


204.52 


20521 


20589 


20fi57 


20725 


20794 


20862 


20931 


54 


21000 


21069 


211.38 


21207 


21276 


21346 


21415 


21485 


21555 


21625 


55 


21694 


21765 


21835 


21905 


21975 


2 046 


22116 


22187 


22258 


22329 


56 


22400 


22471 


22542 


22614 


22085 


22757 


228-^9 


22901 


22972 


23045 


57 


23117 


23189 


23061 


23334 


234' 6 


23479 


2a5.52 


23625 


23698 


23771 


58 


2.S844 


23918 


23991 


240a5 


24139 


24213 


24286 


24361 


24435 


24509 


59 


24583 


24658 


24732 


2480r 


24^82 


24957 


25032 


25107 


,25182 


25258 


CO 


25333 


25409 


25485 


i 255G1 


25636 


25713 


25789 


25865 


'25941 


2^«18 



For continuation to 190 feet, see Table 7. 



174 



GRADING. 



Grading.— Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTION 

Table 3. Level Cuttings. Roadway 18 feet wide 
track excavation. 



100 FEET LONG. 

ize slopes 1 to 



1. For single- 



HEIGHT 
IN FT. 


.0; 


.1 


.2 1 .3 ; 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 j 


.8 


.9 




C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds.' 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 







6.701 


13.51 20.3 


27.3 


34.3 


41.3 


43. 5j 


.55.7 


63.0 


1 


70.4 


77.8 


85.31 92.9 


100.6 


108.3 


116.1 


124.0 


132.0 


140.0 


2 


148.1 


156.3 


164.6! 172.9 


181.3 


189.8 


198.4 


207 


215.7 


. 224.5 


3 


233.3 


242.3 


251.3 260.3 


269.5 


278.7 


288.0 


297.4 


306.8 


316.3 


4 


325.9 


a35.6 


345.31 355.1 


365.0 


375.0 


385.0 


395.1 


405.3 


415.6 


5 


425.9 


436.3 


446.8 457.4 


468.0 


478.7 


489.5 


500.3 


511.3 


5-22.3 


6 


533.3 


544.5 


555. 7i 567.0 


578.4 


589.8 


601.3 


612.9 


624.6 


636.3 


7 


648 1 


660.0 


672.0 684.0 


696.1 


708.3 


720.6 


732.9 


745.3 


7.57.8 


8 


770.i 


783 


795.7 808.5 


821.3 


834.3 


847.3 


860.3 


873.5 


886.7 


9 


900.0 


913.4 


926.8 940.3 


953.9 


967.6 


981.3 


995.1 


1009 


1023 


10 


1037 


1051 


1065 1080 


1094 


1108 


1123 


1137 


1152 


1167 


11 


1181 


1196 


1211 ! 1226 


1241 


1256 


1272 


1287 


1302 


1318 


12 


1333 


1349 


1365 1380 


1396 


1412 


1428 


1444 


1460 


1476 


13 


1493 


1509 


1525 : 1542 


1558 


1575 


1592 


1608 


1625 


m2 


14 


1659 


1676 


1693 i 1711 


1728 


1745 


1763 


1780 


1798 


1816 


15 


1833 


1851 


1869 i 1887 


1905 


1923 


1941 


1960 


1978 


1996 


16 


2015 


2033 


2052 


2071 


2089 


2108 


2127 


2146 


2165 


2184 


17 


2204 


2223 


2212 


2262 


2281 


2301 


2321 


2340 


2360 


2380 


18 


2400 


2420 


2440 


2460 


2481 


2501 


2521 


2542 


2562 


2583 


19 


2604 


2624 


2645 


2066 


2687 


2708 


2729 


2751 


2772 


2793 


20 


2815 


2836 


28-i8 


2880 


2901 


2923 


2945 


2967 


2989 


3011 


21 


3033 


3056 


3078 


3100 


3123 


3145 


3168 


3191 


3213 


3836 


22 


3259 


3282 


3305 


3328 


3352 


3375 


3398 


3422 


3445 


3469 


23 


3493 


3516 


3540 


3564 


a=>88 


3612 


3636 


3660 


3685 


3709 


24 


3733 


3753 


3782 


3807 


3823 


3856 


3881 


3906 


3931 


39.56 


25 


3981 


4007 


4032 


4057 


4083 


4108 


4134 


4160 


4185 


4211 


26 


4237 


4263 


4289 


4315 


4341 


4368 


4394 


4420 


4447 


4473 


27 


4500 


4527 


4553 


4580 


4607 


4634 


4661 


4688 


4716 


4743 


28 


4770 


4798 


4825 


4853 


4fe81 


4908 


4936 


4964 


4992 


5020 


29 


5U48 


5076 


5105 


5133 


5161 


5190 


5218 


5247 


5276 


5304 


30 


5333 


5362 


5391 


5420 


5449 


5479 


5508 


5537 


5567 


5596 


31 


ri6<;6 


5656 


5685 


5715 


5745 


5775 


5805 


5835 


5865 


5896 


32 


5926 


5956 


5987 


6017 


6045 


6079 


6109 


6140 


6171 


6202 


33 


623^ 


6264 


6296 


6327 


6358 


6390 


6421 


6453 


6485 


6.516 


34 


6548 


6580 


6612 


6644 


6676 


6708 


6741 


6773 


6805 


6838 


35 


6870 


6903 


6936 


6968 


7001 


7034 


7067 


7100 


7133 


7167 


36 


72U0 


7233 


7267 


7300 


7334 


7368 


7401 


7435 


7469 


7503 


37 


7537 


7574 


7605 


7640 


7674 


7708 


7743 


7777 


7812 


7847 


38 


7e8i 


7910 


7951 


7986 


8021 


8056 


8092 


8127 


8162 


8198 


39 


8233 


8269 


8305 


8340 


8376 


8412 


8448 


8484 


8520 


8556 


40 


85 3 


8629 


8665 


8702 


8738 


8775 


8812 


8848 


8885 


89-32 


41 


8959 


8996 


9033 i 9071 


9108 


9145 


9183 


9220 


9258 


9296 


42 


9333 


9371 


9409 9447 


94a5 


9523 


9561 


9600 


9638 


9676 


43 


9715 


9753 


9792 9831 


9869 


9908 


9947 


9986 


10025 


10063 


44 


10104 


10143 


10182 1 10222 


10261 


10301 


loaii 


10380 


10420 


10460 


45 


10500 


10540 


10580 1 10620 


10661 


10701 


10741 


10782 


10522 


10863 


46 


10904 


1C944 


10965 i 11026 


11067 


11108 


11149 


11191 


11232 


11273 


47 


11315 


11356 


11398 11440 


11481 


11523 


11565 


11607 


11649 


11691 


48 


11733 


!ll776 


11818 1 11860 


11903 


11945 


11988 


12031 


12073 


12116 


49 


12159 


12202 


12245 1 12288 


12332 


12375 


12418 


12462 


12505 


12549 


50 


12593 


12636 


12680 \ 12724 


12768 


12812 


12856 


12900 


12945 


12989 


51 


13033 


13078 


13122 1 13167 


13212 


13256 


13301 


13846 


13391 


13436 


52 


13481 


13527 


13572 : 13617 


13663 


13708 


13754 


13800 


13845 


13891 


53 


13937 


13983 


14029 ; 14075 


14121 


14168 


14214 


14260 


14307 


14a53 


54 


\ 14400 


! 14447 


14493 . 14540 


14587 


14(i34 


14681 


14728 


14776 


14823 


55 


1 14870 


14918 


14965 ; 15013 


15061 


15108 


15156 


15204 


15252 


15300 


56 


15348 


15396 


15445 ' 1.5493 


15541 


15590 


l.=i638 


15687 


15736 


15784 


57 


15833 


115882 


15931 15980 


16029 


16079 


16128 


16177 


162-.i7 


16276 


58 


16326 


1 16376 


16425 


16475 


16525 


16575 


16625 


16675 


16725 


16776 


59 


16826 


116876 


16927 


16977 


17028 


1 17079 


17129 


17180 


17231 


17282 


60 


17333 


17385 


17436 


17487 


17538 


1 17590 


i 17641 


17693 


17745 


17796 



For continuation to 100 feet deep, see Table 7. 



GRADING. 



175 



Grading. — Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OP SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG, 

Table 4. Level Cuttings. Roadway 18 feet wide, side-slopes P/^ to 1. For single 











track excavation. 










DEPTH 

IN FT. 


.0 


.1 


1 2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 


.8 


.9 




C. Yds 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds 


0. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 







6.72 


13.6 


20.5 


27.6 


34.7 


42.0 


49.4 


56.9 


64.5 


1 


72.2 


80.1 


88.C 


96.1 


104.2 


112.5 


120.9 


129.4 


138.0 


146.7 


2 


155.5 


164.5 


173.5 


182.7 


191.9 


201.3 


210.8 


220 4 


230.1 


240.0 


3 


249.9 


260.0 


270.1 


280.4 


290.8 


301.3 


311.9 


322 .'ei 333.4 


344.5 


4 


355.5 


366.7 


378.0 


389.4 


400.9 


412.5 


424.2 


436 oi 448.0 


460.0 


5 


472.2 


484.5 


496.9 


509.4 


522.0 


534.7 


547.6 


560 £5 


573.6 


586.7 


6 


600.0 


613.4 


626.9 


640.5 


654 2 


668.1 


682.0 


696 1 


710.2 


724.5 


7 


738.9 


753.4 


768.0 


782.7 


797.6 


812.5 


827.6 


842 7 


858.0 


873 4 


8 


888.9 


904.5 


920.2 


936.1 


952.0 


968.1 


984.2 


1001' 


1017 


1033 


9 


1050 


1067 


1084 


1101 


1118 


1135 


1152 


1169 


1187 


1205 


10 


1222 


1240 


1258 


1276 


1294 


1313 


1331 


1349 


1368 


1387 


11 


1406 


1425 


1444 


1463 


1482 


1501 


1521 


1541 


1560 


1580 


12 


1600 


1620 


1640 


1661 


1681 


1701 


1722 


1743 


1764 


1785 


13 


1806 


1827 


1848 


1869 


1891 


1913 


1934 


1956 


1978 


2000 


14 


2022 


2045 


2067 


2089 


2112 


2135 


2158 


2181 


2204 


2227 


15 


2250 


2273 


2297 


2321 


2344 


2368 


2392 


2416 


2440 


2465 


16 


2489 


2513 


2538 


2563 


2588 


2613 


2638 


2663 


2688 


2713 


17 


2739 


2765 


2790 


2816 


2842 


2868 


2894 


2921 


2947 


2973 


18 


3000 


3027 


3054 


3081 


3108 


3135 


3162 


3189 


3217 


3245 


19 


3272 


3300 


3328 


3356 


3384 


3413 


3441 


3469 


3498 


3527 


20 


3556 


3585 


3614 


3643 


3672 


3701 


3731 


3761 


3790 


3820 


21 


3850 


3880 


3910 


3941 


3971 


4001 


4032 


4063 


4094 


4125 


22 


4156 


4187 


4218 


4249 


4281 


4313 


4344 


4376 


4408 


4440 


23 


4472 


4505 


4537 


4569 


4602 


4635 


4668 


4701 


4734 


4767 


24 


4800 


4833 


4867 


4901 


4934 


4968 


5002 


5036 


5070 


5105 


25 


5139 


5173 


5208 


5243 


5278 


5313 


5348 


5383 


5418 


5453 


26 


5189 


5525 


5560 


5596 


5632 


5668 


5704 


5741 


5777 


5813 


27 


5850 


5887 


5924 


5961 


5998 


6035 


6072 


6109 


6147 


6185 


28 


6222 


6260 


6298 


6336 


6374 


6413 


6451 


6489 


6528 


6567 


29 


6606 


6645 


6684 


6723 


6762 


6801 


6841 


6881 


6920 


6960 


30 


7000 


7040 


7080 


7121 


7161 


7201 


7242 


7283 


7324 


7365 


31 


7406 


7447 


7488 


7529 


7571 


7613 


7654 


7696 


7738 


7780 


32 


7o22 


7865 


7907 


7949 


7992 


8035 


8078 


8121 


8164 


8207 


33 


8250 


8293 


8337 


8381 


8424 


8468 


8512 


8556 


8600 


8645 


34 


8689 


8733 


8778 


8823 


8868 


8913 


8958 


9003 


9048 


9093 


35 


9139 


9185 


9230 


9276 


9322 


9368 


9414 


9461 


9507 


9553 


36 


9600 


9647 


9694 


9741 


9788 


9835 


9882 


9929 


9977 


10025 


37 


10072 


10120 


10168 


10216 


10264 


10313 


10361 


10409 


10458 


10507 


38 


10556 


106U5 


10654 


10703 


10752 


10801 


10851 


10901 


10950 


11000 


39 


11050 


11100 


11150 


11200 


11251 


11301 


11352 


11403 


11454 


11505 


40 


115=>6 


11607 


11658 


11709 


11761 


11813 


11864 


11916 


11968 


12020 


41 


12072 


12125 


12177 


12229 


12282 


12335 


12388 


12441 


12494 


12547 


42 


12600 


12653 


12707 


12761 


12814 


12868 


12922 


12976 


13030 


13085 


43 


13139 


12193 


13248 


13303 


13358 


13413 


13468 


13523 


13578 


13633 


44 


13689 


13745 


13800 


13856 


13912 


13968 


14024 


14081 


14137 


14193 


45 


14250 


14307 


14364 


14421 


14478 


14535 


14592 


14649 


14707 


14765 


46 


11822 


14880 


14938 


14996 


15054 


15113 


15171 


15229 


15288 


15347 


47 


15406 


15465 


15524 


15583 


15642 


15701 


15761 


15821 


15880 


If- 940 


48 


16000 


16060 


16120 


16181 


16241 


16301 


16362 


16423 


16484 


16545 


49 


16606 


16667 


16728 


16789 


16851 


16913 


16974 


17036 


17098 


17160 


50 


17222 


17285 


17347 


17409 


17472 


17535 


17598 


17661 


17724 


17787 


51 


17850 


17913 


1V977 


18041 


18104 


18168 


18232 


18298 


18360 


18425 


52 


18489 


18553 


18618 


18683 


18748 


18813 


18878 


18943 


19008 


19U73 


53 


19139 


19205 


19270 


19336 


19402 


19468 


19534 


19601 


19667 


19733 


54 


19800 


19867 


19934 


20000 


20068 


20135 


20202 


20269 


20337 


20405 


55 


20472 


20540 


20608 


20676 


20744 


20813 


2u881 


20949 


21018 


21087 


56 


21156 


21225 


21294 


21363 


21432 


21501 


21571 


21641 


21710 


21780 


57 


2175') 


21920 


21990 


22061 


22131 


22201 


22272 


22343 


22414 


22485 


58 


22556 


22627 


22698 


22769 


22841 


22913 


22984 


23056 


23128 


232J0 


59 


23272 


23345 


23417 


23489 


2a562 


23635 


23708 


23781 


23854 


23927 


60 


240'K) 


24073 


24147 


24221 


24294 24368 1 


24442 


24516 


24590 


24665 



For continuation to 100 feet see Table 7. 



176 



GRADING. 



Grading.— Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG. 

Table 5. Level Cuttings. Roadway 23 feet wide, side slopes 1 to 1. For double- 
track excavation. 



DEPTH 
IN FT. 


.0 


.1 


.2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 


.8 
C. Yds. 


.9 




C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 







10.4 


20.9 


31.4 


42.1 


52.8 


63.6 


74.4 


85.3 


96.3 


1 


107.4 


118.6 


129.8 


141.1 


152.4 


163.9 


175.4 


187.0 


198.7 


210.4 


2 


222.2 


234.1 


246.1 


258.1 


270.2 


282.4 


294.7 


307.0 


3 9.4 


331.9 


3 


344.4 


357.1 


369.8 


382.6 


395.4 


408.3 


421.3 


434.4 


447.6 


460.8 


4 


474.1 


487.4 


500.9 


514.4 


528.0 


541.7 


555.4 


.569.2 


583.1 


597.1 


5 


nii.i 


625.2 


639.4 


653.7 


668.0 


682.4 


696.9 


711 4 


726.1 


740.8 


G 


755 6 


770.4 


785.4 


800.4 


815.5 


830.6 


845.8 


861.1 


876.5 


891.9 


7 


907 5 


923 


938.7 


954.5 


970.3 


986.2 


1002 


1018 


1034 


1050 


8 


1057 


1083 


1099 


1116 


1132 


1149 


1166 


1182 


1199 


1216 


9 


1233 


1250 


1267 


1285 


1302 


1319 


1337 


1354 


1372 


1390 


10 


1407 


1425 


1443 


1461 


1479 


1497 


1515 


1534 


1.552 


1570 


11 


1589 


1607 


1626 


1645' 


1664 


1682 


1701 


1720 


1739 


17.59 


12 


1778 


1797 


1816 


1836 


1855 


1875 


1895 


1914 


1934 


1954 


13 


1974 


1994 


2014 


2034 


2055 


2075 


2095 


2116 


2136 


2157 


14 


2178 


2199 


2219 


2240 


2261 


2282 


2304 


ft395 


2346 


2367 


15 


2389 


2410 


2432 


2454 


2475 


2497 


2519 


2.541 


2563 


2585 


16 


2607 


2630 


2652 


26 r4 


2697 


2719 


2742 


2765 


2788 


2810 


17 


2833 


2856 


2879 


2903 


2926 


2949 


2972 


2996 


3019 


3043 


18 


3067 


3090 


3114 


3138 


3162 


3186 


3210 


3234 


3259 


32 3 


19 


3307 


3332 


3356 


3381 


3406 


3431 


3455 


3480 


3505 


3530 


20 


3556 


3581 


3606 


3631 


3657 


3682 


3708 


3734 


3759 


3785 


ai 


3811 


3837 


3863 


3889 


3915 


3942 


3968 


3994 


4021 


4047 


22 


4074 


4101 


4128 


4154 


4181 


4208 


4235 


4263 


4290 


4317 


23 


4344 


4372 


4399 


4427 


4455 


4482 


4510 


4538 


4566 


4594 


24 


4622 


4650 


4679 


4707 


4735 


4764 


4792 


4821 - 


4850 


4879 


25 


4907 


4936 


4985 


4994 


5024 


5053 


5082 


5111 


5141 


5170 


26 


5200 


5230 


5259 


5289 


5319 


5349 


5379 


5409 


5439 


5470 


27 


5500 


5530 


5561 


5591 


5622 


5653 


5684 


5714 


5745 


5776 


28 


5807 


5839 


5870 


5901 


593^ 


5964 


5995 


6027 


6059 


6090 


29 


6122 


6154 


6186 


6218 


6350 


6282 


6315 


6347 


6379 


6412 


30 


6444 


6477 


6510 


6543 


6575 


6B08 


6641 


6674 


6708 


6741 


31 


6774 


6ti07 


6841 


6874 


6908 


6942 


6975 


7009 


7043 


7077 


^Z 


7111 


7145 


7179 


7214 


7248 


7282 


7317 


7351 


7386 


7421 


33 


7456 


7490 


7525 


7560 


7.595 


7631 


7666 


7701 


7736 


7772 


34 


7807 


7843 


7879 


7914 


7950 


7986 


8022 


8058 


8094 


8130 


35 


8167 


8203 


8239 


8276 


8312 


8349 


8386 


8423 


8459 


8496 


b6 


8533 


8570 


8Bo8 


8645 


8682 


8719 


8757 


8794 


8832 


8870 


37 


8907 


8945 


8983 


9021 


9059 


9U97 


9135 


9174 


9212 


9250 


38 


9289 


9327 


9366 


9407 


9444 


9482 


9521 


9560 


9599 


9639 


39 


9678 


9717 


9756 


9796 


9835 


9875 


9915 


9954 


9994 


10034 


40 


10074 


10114 


10154 


10194 


10235 


10275 


10315 


10356 


10396 


10437 


41 


10478 


10519 


10559 


10600 


10641 


10682 


10724 


10765 


10806 


10847 


i2 


10889 


10930 


10972 


11014 


11055 


11097 


11139 


11181 


11223 


11265 


43 


11307 


11350 


11392 


11434 


11477 


11.519 


11562 


11605 


11648 


11690 


44 


11733 


11776 


11819 


11863 


11906 


11949 


11992 


12036 


12079 


12123 


45 


12167 


12210 


12254 


12298 


12342 


12386 


12430 


12474 


12519 


12563 


4j 


12607 


12652 


12696 


12741 


12786 


12831 


12875 


12920 


12965 


13010 


47 


13056 


13101 


13146 


13191 


13237 


13282 


13328 


13374 


13419 


13i65 


48 


13511 


13587 


13603 


13649 


13695 


13742 


13788 


13834 


13881 


13927 


4J 


13974 


14021 


14068 


14114 


14161 


14208 


14255 


14303 


14350 


14397 


50 


14444 


14492 


14539 


14587 


14635 


14682 


14730 


14778 


14826 


14874 


51 


14922 


14970 


15019 


15067 


15115 


15164 


15212 


15261 


15310 


15359 


53 


15407 


15456 


15505 


15554 


15604 


15653 


15702 


1.5751 


15801 


15850 


53 


15900 


15950 


15999 


16049 


16099 


16149 


16199 


16249 


16299 


16350 


54 


16400 


16456 


16501 


16551 


16602 


16653 


16704 


16754 


16805 


16856 


55 


16907 


16959 


17010 


17061 


17112 


17x64 


17215 


17267 


17319 


17370 


56 


17422 


17474 


17526 


17578 


17630 


17682 


17735 


17787 


17839 


17892 


57 


17944 


17997 


18050 


18103 


18155 


18208 


18261 


18314 


18368 


18421 


5S 


18474 


18527 


18581 


18634 


18688 


18742 


18795 


18849 


18903 


18957 


59 


19011 


19065 


19119 


19174 


19228 


19282 


19337 


19391 


19446 


19501 


60 


19556 


19610 


19665 


19720 


19775 


19831 


19886 


19941 


19996 


20052 



For continuation to 100 feet, see Table 7. 



GRADING. 



177 



Grading. —Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG. 

Table 6. Level cuttings. Roadway 28 feet wide, side-slopes 1^4 to 1. For double- 
track excavation. 



DEPTH 
IN FT. 


.0 


.1 


.2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


.7 


.8 


.9 




C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 


C. Yds. 







10.4 


21.0 


31.6 


42.4 


53 2 


64.2 


75.9 


86.5 


97.9 


1 


109.3 


120.8 


132.5 


144.3 


156.1 


168.1 


180.2 


192.4 


204.8 


217.2 


2 


229.6 


242.3 


255.0 


267.9 


280.9 


294.0 


307.2 


320.5 


334.0 


347.5 


3 


361.2 


374.9 


388.8 


402 8 


416.9 


431.1 


445.4 


459.9 


474.4 


489.1 


4 


503.7 


518.6 


533.6 


548.6 


563.9 


579.3 


594.7 


610.2 


625.8 


641.6 


5 


657.5 


673.4 


689.5 


705.7 


722.1 


738.5 


755.0 


771.7 


788.4 


805.3 


6 


822.2 


839.3 


856.5 


873.8 


891.2 


908.8 


9:^6.4 


944.2 


962.0 


980.0 


7 


998.1 


1016 


1035 


1053 


1072 


1090 


1109 


1128 


1147 


1166 


8 


1185 


1204 


1224 


1243 


1263 


1283 


1303 


1322 


1343 


1363 


9 


1383 


1403 


1424 


1445 


1465 


1486 


1507 


1528 


1549 


1571 


10 


1592 


1614 


1635 


1657 


1679 


1701 


1723 


1749 


1767 


1790 


11 


1812 


1835 


1858 


1881 


1904 


1927 


1950 


1973 


1997 


2020 


12 


2044 


2063 


2092 


2116 


2140 


2164 


2164 


2213 


2238 


2262 


13 


2287 


2312 


2337 


2362 


2387 


2413 


2438 


2464 


2489 


2515 


14 


2541 


2567 


2593 


2619 


2645 


2672 


2698 


2725 


2752 


2779 


15 


2806 


2833 


2860 


2887 


2915 


2942 


2970 


2997 


3025 


3053 


16 


3081 


3109 


3138 


3166 


3195 


3223 


3252 


3281 


3310 


3339 


17 


3368 


3397 


3427 


3456 


3486 


3516 


3.546 


3576 


3606 


3636 


18 


3667 


3697 


3728 


3758 


3789 


3820 


3851 


3882 


3913 


3944 


19 


3975 


4007 


4039 


4070 


4102 


4134 


4166 


4198 


4231 


4263 


20 


4296 


4328 


4361 


4394 


4427 


4460 


4493 


4527 


4560 


4594 


21 


4627 


4661 


4695 


4729 


4763 


4797 


4832 


4866 


4900 


4935 


22 


4970 


5005 


5040 


5075 


5111 


5146 


5181 


5217 


5253 


5288 


23 


5324 


5360 


5396 


5432 


5469 


5505 


5542 


5578 


5615 


5652 


24 


5689 


5726 


5763 


5800 


5S38 


5875 


5913 


5951 


5989 


6027 


25 


6065 


6103 


6141 


6179 


6218 


6257 


6295 


6334 


6373 


6412 


26 


6451 


6491 


6530 


6570 


6609 


6649 


6689 


6729 


6769 


6809 


27 


6850 


6890 


6931 


6971 


7012 


7053 


7094 


7135 


7176 


7217 


28 


7259 


7300 


7342 


7384 


7426 


7468 


7510 


7552 


7594 


7637 


29 


7680 


7722 


7765 


7808 


7851 


7894 


7937 


7981 


8024 


8067 


30 


8111 


8155 


8199 


8243 


8287 


8331 


8375 


8420 


8424 


8509 


31 


8554 


8598 


8643 


8688 


8734 


8779 


8824 


8870 


8915 


8961 


32 


9007 


9053 


9099 


9145 


9191 


9238 


9284 


9331 


9378 


9425 


33 


9472 


9519 


9566 


9613 


9661 


9708 


9756 


9804 


9851 


9900 


34 


9948 


9997 


10045 


10093 


10142 


10190 


10239 


10288 


10337 


10386 


36 


10435 


10484 


10534 


10583 


10633 


10683 


10732 


10782 


10832 


10882 


36 


10933 


10983 


11034 


11083 


11135 


11186 


11237 


11288 


11339 


11391 


37 


11443 


11494 


11546 


11598 


11649 


11701 


11753 


11806 


11858 


11910 


38 


11963 


12016 


12068 


12121 


12174 


12227 


12281 


12334 


12387 


12441 


39 


12494 


12548 


12602 


12656 


12710 


12764 


12819 


12873 


12928 


12982 


40 


13037 


13092 


13147 


13202 


13257 


13312 


13368 


13423 


13479 


13535 


41 


13591 


13647 


13703 


13759 


13815 


13872 


13928 


13985 


14042 


14099 


42 


14156 


14213 


14270 


14327 


14385 


14442 


14500 


14558 


14615 


14673 


43 


14731 


14790 


14848 


14906 


14965 


15024 


15082 


15141 


15200 


15259 


44 


15318 


15378 


15437 


15497 


15556 


15616 


15676 


15736 


15796 


15856 


45 


15917 


15977 


16038 


16098 


16159 


16220 


16281 


16342 


16403 


16465 


46 


16526 


16587 


16649 


16711 


16773 


16835 


16897 


16959 


17021 


17084 


47 


17146 


17209 


17272 


17335 


17398 


17461 


17524 


17587 


17651 


17714 


48 


17778 


17842 


17905 


17969 


18093 


18098 


18162 


18226 


18291 


18356 


49 


1842) 


18485 


18550 


18615 


18680 


18746 


18811 


18»T7 


18942 


19008 


50 


19074 


19140 


19206 


19272 


19339 


19405 


19472 


19538 


19605 


19672 


51 


19739 


19806 


19873 


19940 


20008 


20075 


20143 


20211 


20279 


20347 


52 


20415 


20483 


20551 


20620 


20688 


20757 


20826 


20894 


20963 


21032 


53 


. 21102 


21171 


21241 


21310 


21380 


21450 


21519 


21589 


21659 


21730 


54 


21800 


21870 


21941 


22012 


22082 


22153 


22224 


22295 


22366 


22438 


55 


22509 


22581 


22^52 


22724 


22796 


22868 


22940 


23012 


23085 


23157 


56 


23'A30 


23302 


23375 


23448 


23521 


23594 


23667 


23741 


23814 


23888 


57 


23961 


24035 


24109 


24183 


24257 


24331 


24405 


24480 


24554 


24629 


58 


24701 


24779 


24854 


24929 


25004 


25079 


25155 


25230 


2.5306 


25381 


59 


25457 


25533 


25609 


25686 


25762 


25838 


25915 


25992 


26068 


26145 


60 


26222 


2G299 


26376 


2645 1 


26531 


26609 


26686 


26764 


26842 


26920 



For continuation to 100 feet, see Table 7. 



12 



178 



GRADING. 



Grading. — Continued. 



CUBICAL CONTENTS OF SECTIONS 100 FEET LONG. 

Table 7. Level Cuttings. Continuation of the six foregoing Tables of Cubic Contents, to 
100 feet of height or depth. 



HEIGHT 














OB DEPTH 


Table 1. 


Table 2. 


Table 3. 


Table 4 


Table 5. 


Table 6. 


IN FEET. 
















Cubic Ydp. 


Cubic Yds. 


Cubic Yds. 


Cubic Yds. 


Cubic Yds. 


Cubic Yds. 


61 


23835 


■ 26004 


17848 


24739 


20107 


26998 


.5 


24201 


26479 


18108 


25113 


20386 


27390 


62 


24570 


^6867 


18370 


25489 


20667 


27785 


.5 


24942 


27257 


18634 


25868 


20949 


28183 


63 


25317 


27650 


18900 


26250 


21233 


28583 


..5 


25694 


28046 


19168 


26635 


21519 


28986 


64 


26074 


28444 


19437 


27022 


21807 


29393 


.5 


26457 


28846 


19708 


27413 


22097 


29801 


65 


26843 


29250 


19981 


27806 


22389 


30213 


.5 


27231 


29657 


20256 


28201 


22682 


30627 


66 


27622 


30067 


20533 


28600 


22978 


31044 


.5 


28016 


30479 


20812 


29001 


23275 


31464 


67 


28413 


30894 


21093 


29406 


23574 


31887 


.5 


28812 


31313 


21375 


29813 


23875 


32312 


68 


29215 


31733 


21659 


30222 


24178 


32741 


..5 


29620 


32157 


21945 


30635 


24482 


33172 


69 


30028 


32583 


22233 


31050 


24789 


33605 


.5 


30438 


33013 


22523 


31468 


25097 


34042 


70 


30852 


33444 


22814 


31889 


25407 


34481 


.5 


31268 


33879 


23108 


32313 


26719 


34924 


71 


31687 


34317 


23404 


32789 


26033 


35269 


.5 


32108 


34757 


23701 


33168 


26349 


35816 


72 


3->533 


35200 


24000 


33600 


26667 


36267 


.5 


32960 


a5646 


24301 


34035 


26986 


36720 


73 


33390 


36094 


24604 


34472 


27307 


37176 


.5 


33823 


36546 


24907 


34913 


27631 


37635 


74 


34259 


37000 


25214 


35356 


27956 


38096 


.5 


34697 


37457 


25522 


35801 


28282 


38561 


75 


35139 


37917 


25832 


362.50 


28611 


39028 


.5 


35582 


38379 


26144 


36701 


28942 


39498 


76 


36029 


38844 


26458 


37013 


29174 


39970 


.5 


36479 


39313 


26774 


37156 


29608 


40446 


77 


36931 


39783 


27092 


38072 


29944 


40924 


.5 


37386 


40257 


27411 


38535 


30282 


41405 


78 


37844 


40733 


277:^3 


39000 


30622 


41889 


.5 


38305 


41213 


28056 


39468 


30964 


42375 


79 


38768 


41694 


28381 


39939 


31307 


42865 


.5 


39235 


42179 


28708 


40413 


31653 


43357 


80 


39704 


42667 


29037 


40889 


32000 


43852 


81 


40650 


43650 


29700 


41850 


32700 


44850 


82 


41607 


44644 


30370 


42822 


33407 


4.5859 


83 


42576 


456,50 


31048 


43S06 


34122 


46880 


84 


43555 


46667 


31733 


44800 


34844 


47911 


85 


44546 


47694 


32426 


4f806 


35574 


48954 


86 


45.548 


48733 


33126 


46822 


36311 


50008 


87 


46581 


49783 


33833 


47850 , 


37056 


51072 


88 


47585 


50844 


34548 


48889 


37807 


52148 


89 


48620 


51917 


35270 


49939 


,38567 


53235 


90 


49667 


53000 


36000 


51000 


39333 


54333 


91 


50724 


54094 


36737 


52072 


40107 


55443 


92 


51793 


55200 


37481 


53156 


40889 


56563 


93 


52872 


56317 


38233 


54250 


41678 


57694 


94 


53963 


57444 


38993 


55356 


42474 


58837 


95 


55065 


58583 


39759 


56472 


43278 


59090 


96 


56178 


59733 


40533 


57600 


44089 


61155 


97 


57302 


60894 


41315 


58739 


44907 


62331 


98 


.58437 


62067 


42104 


59889 


45733 


63518 


99 


59583 


63250 


42900 


61050 


46567 


64716 


100 


60741 


64444 


43704 


62222 


47407 


65926 

















The invention of the compound microscope has been credited to Zachias 
Janson and his son, spectacle makers at Middleburg A. D. 1590. 



GRADING. 



179 



Table 8, of Cubic Yards in a 100-foot station of level cutting or filling, 
to be added to, or subtracted from, the quantities in the preceding seven 
tables, in case the excavations or embankmeilts should be increased or 
diminished 2 feet in width. Cubic yards in a length of 100 feet; breadth 2 
feet; and of different depths. 



S.9 


"O 




^ 


S.2 




c.S 




o.;= 


4 


*-ja 


^ 


*^S3 


u 


■-ja 


tK 


■^■° 


k< 


^J2 


i: 


•^■^ ■ 


O 03 




o a 


ja-^ . 


O OS 




O CS 


•^■^ ■ 


<J si 


.^J^^t 


■2>^ 


Mi 


■^>^ 




S^H 


Mi 


■^>^ 




StH 


<np..ii 


3 


j|ScJ 


3 


4J^ 0) 


s 


th^ V 


3 


Qj ^, .Oi 


g 




o 


152 




o 




o 




Q 


.5 


3.70 


.5 


.5 


300 


.5 


448 


.5 


.596 


1 


7.41 


21 


156 


41 


304 


61 


4.52 


81 


600 


.5 


11.1 


.5 


159 


.5 


307 


.5 


456 


.5 


604 


2 


14.8 


22 


163 


42 


311 


62 


459 


82 


607 


.5 


18..5 


.5 


167 


.5 


315 


.5 


463 


.5 


611 


3 


22.2 


23 


170 


43 


319 


63 


467 


83 


615 


.5 


25.9 


.5 


174 


.5 


322 


.5 


470 


.5 


619 


4 


29.6 


24 


178 


44 


326 


64 


474 


84 


622 


.5 


33.3 


.5 


181 


.5 


330 


.5 


478 


.5 


626 


5 


37.0 


25 


1&5 


45 


333 


05 


481 


85 


630 


.5 


40.7 


.5 


189 


.5 


337 




485 


.5 


633 


6 


44.4 


26 


193 


46 


341 


60 "' 


489 


86 


637 


.5 


48.1 


.5 


196 


.5 


344 


.5 


493 


.5 


641 


7 


51.9 


27 


200 


47 


348 


67 


496 


87 


644 


.5 


55.6 


.5 


204 


.5 


.352 


.5 


500 


.5 


648 


8 


59.3 


28 


207 


48 


356 


68 


504 


88 


652 


.5 


63.0 


.5 


211 


.5 


359 


.5 


507 


.5 


656 


9 


66.7 


29 


215 


49 


363 


69 


511 


89 


659 


.5 


70.4 


.5 


219 


.5 


366 


.5 


515 


.5 


663 


10 


74.1 


30 


222 


53 


370 


70 


519 


90 


667 


.5 


77.S 


.5 


226 


.5 


374 


.5 


523 


.5 


670 


11 


81.5 


31 


230 


51 


378 


71 


526 


91 


674 


.5 


85.2 


.5 


233 


.5 


381 


.5 


530 


.5 


678 


12 


88.9 


32 


237 


52 


385 


72 


533 


92 


681 


.5 


92.6 


.5 


241 


.5 


389 


.5 


537 


.5 


685 


13 


96.3 


33 


244 


53 


393 


73 


541 


93 


689 


.5 


100 


.5 


248 


.5 


396 


.5 


544 


.5 


693 


14 


104 


34 


252 


54 


400 


74 


548 


94 


696 


.5 


107 


.5 


256 


.5 


404 


.5 


552 


.5 


700 


15 


111 


35 


2.59 


55 


407 


75 


556 


95 


704 


.5 


115 


.5 


263 


.5 


411 


.5 


559 


.5 


707 


16 


119 


36 


267 


56 


415 


78 


563 


96 


711 


.5 


122 


.5 


270 


.5 


419 


.5 


567 


.5 


715 


17 


126 


37 


274 




422 


77 


570 


97 


719 


.5 


1.30 


.5 


278 


.5 


426 


.5 


574 


.5 


722 


18 


1.33 


38 


281 


58 


430 


78 


578 


98 


726 


.5 


137 


.5 


285 


.5 


433 


.5 


581 


.5 


730 


19 


141 


39 


289 


59 


437 


79 


595 


99 


733 


.5 


144 


.5 


293 


.5 


441 


.5 


589 


.5 


737 


20 


148 


40 


296 


60 


444 


80 


593 


100 


741 



When a boiler is cold and filled with water, it will be found that, after 
the tire is lighted and steam is raised to the regular pressure, the gauge- 
cocks and water-glass show a higher water level than before the fires were 
started, which is owing to the expansion of the water by heat. If now the 
throttle be opened and the engine started, the water will rise still higher in 
man}' boilers, showing a false water-line — for the w^ater will drop to its 
proper level upon stopping the engine. This is owing to the violent ebulli- 
tion going on in the boiler to supply the steam required, and which is being 
constantly drawn off — and it is more marked when the steam room is 
small and the pressure high. 



180 



GRADES. 



Ris:^ PER Mii/B OF VARIOUS grad:i^s. 



Grade 


Kise per 


Grade 


Rise per 


Grade 


Rise per 


Grade 


Rise per 


loTft. 


Mile. 


KxTft. 


Mile. 


KxTft. 


Mile. 


lO^O^ft. 


Mile. 


.01 


.528 


.61 


32.208 


1.21 


63.888 


1.81 


95.568 


.02 


1.056 


.62 


32.736 


1.22 


64.416 


1.82 


96.096 


.03 


1.584 


.63 


33.264 


1.23 


64.944 


1.83 


96.624 


.04 


2.112 


.64 


33.792 


1.24 


65.472 


1.84 


97.152 


.05 


2.640 


.65 


34.320 


1.25 


66.000 


1.85 


97.680 


.06 


3.168 


.66 


34.848 


1.26 


66.528 


1.86 


98.208 


.07 


3.696 


.67 


35.376 


1.27 


67.056 


1.87 


98.736 


.08 


4.224 


.68 


35.904 


1.28 


67.584 


1.88 


99.264 


.09 


4.752 


.69 


36.432 


1.29 


68.112 


1.89 


99.792 


.10 


5.280 


.70 


36.960 


1.30 


68.640 


1.90 


100.320 


.11 


5.808 


.71 


37.488 


• 1.31 


69.168 


1.91 


100.848 


.12 


6.336 


.72 


38.016 


1.32 


69.696 


1.92 


101.376 


.13 


6 864 


!73 


38.544 


1.33 


70.224 


1.93 


101.904 


.14 


7.392 


.74 


39.072 


1.34 


70 752 


1.94 


102.432 


.15 


7.920 


.75 


39.600 


1.35 


71.280 


1.95 


102.960 


.16 


8.448 


.76 


40.128 


1.36 


71.808 


1.96 


103.488 


.17 


8.976 


77 


40.656 


1.37 


72.336 


1.97 


104.016 


.18 


9..504 


!78 


41.184 


1.38 


72.864 


1.98 


104 544 


.19 


10.032 


.79 


41.712 


1.39 


7.3.392 


1.99 


105.072 


.20 


10.560 


.80 


42.240 


1.40 


73.920 


2.00 


105 600 


.21 


11.088 


.81 


42.768 


1.41 


74.448 


2.10 


110.880 


.22 


11.616 


.82 


43.296 


1.42 


74.976 


2.20 


116.160 


.23 


12.144 


.83 


43.824 


1.43 


75.. 504 


2.30 


121.440 


.24 


12.672 


.84 


44.352 


1.44 


76.032 


2.40 


126 720 


.25 


13.200 


.85 


44.880 


1.45 


76.560 


2.50 


132.000 


.26 


13.728 


.86 


45.408 


1.46 


77.088 


2.60 


137.280 


.27 


14.256 


.87 


45.936 


1.47 


77.616 


2.70 


142.560 


.28 


14.784 


.88 


46.464 


1.48 


78.144 


2.80 , 


147.840 


.29 


15.312 


.89 


46.992 


1.49 


78.672 


2.90 


153.120 


.30 


15.840 


.90 


47.520 


l.m 


79.200 


3.00 


158.400 


.31 


16.368 


.91 


48.048 


l.cl 


79.728 


.3.10 


163.680 


.32 


16.896 


.92 


48.576 


1..52 


80.256 


3.20 


168.960 


.33 


17.424 


.93 


49.104 


1.53 


80.784 


3.30 


174.320 


.34 


17.952 


.94 


49.632 


1.54 


81.312 


3.40 


179.520 


.35 


18.480 


.95 


50.160 


1.55 


81.840 


3.50 


184.800 


.36 


19.008 


.96 


50.688 


1.56 


82.368 


3 60 


190.080 


.37 


19.536 


.97 


51.216 


1.57 


82.896 


3.70 


195.360 


.38 


20.064 


.98 


51.744 


1.58 


83.424 


3.80 


200.640 


.39 


20.592 


.99 


52.272 


1.59 


83.952 


3.90 


205.920 


.40 


21.120 


1.00 


52.800 


1.60 


84.480 


4.00 


211.200 


.41 


21.648 


1.01 


53.328 


1.61 


85.008 


4.10 


216.480 


.42 


22.176 


1.02 


53.856 


1.62 


85.536 


4.20 


221.760 


.43 


22.704 


1.03 


54.384 


1.63 


86.064 


4.30 


227.040 


.44 


23.232 


1.04 


54.912 


1.64 


86.592 


4.40 


232.320 


.45 


23.760 


1.05 


55.410 


1.65 


87.120 


4.50 


237.600 


.46 


24.288 


1.06 


55.968 


1.66 


87.648 


4.60 


242.880 


.47 


24.816 


1.07 


56.496 


1.67 


88.176 


4.70 


248.160 


.48 


25.344 


1.08 


57.024 


1.68 


88.704 


4.80 


253.440 


.49 


25.872 


1.09 


57.552 


1.69 


89.232 


4.90 


258.720 


.50 


26.400 


1.10 


58.080 


1.70 


89.760 


5.00 


264.000 


.51 


26.928 


1.11 


58.608 


1.71 


90.288 


5.10 


269.280 


.52 


27.456 


1.12 


59.136 


1.72 


90.816 


5.20 


274.560 


.53 


27.984 


1.13 


59.664 


1.73 


91.872 


5.30 


285.120 


.54 


28.512 


1.14 


60.192 


1.74 


91.872 


5.40 


285.120 


.55 


29.040 


1.15 


60.720 


1.75 


92.400 


5.50 


290.400 


.56 


29.568 


1.16 


61.248 


1.76 


92.928 


5.60 


295.680 


.57 


30.096 


1.17 


61.776 


1.77 


93.456 


5.70 


300.960 


.58 


30.624 


1.18 


62.304 


1.78 


93.984 


5.80 


306.240 


.59 


31.152 


1.19 


62.832 


1.79 


94.512 


5.90 


311.520 


.60 


31.680 


1.20 


63.360 


1.80 


95.040 


6.00 


316.800 



GAS— GRAVITY. 



181 



Illuminating Gas. 

Coal gas, enriched for illuminating purposes, has about the following 
composition : 

PER CENT. 

Hydrogen 45.00 

Light Carburetted Hydrogen 40.00 

Carbonic Oxide 6.50 

Heavy H3'dro-Carbon 5.50 

Water Vapor 1.50 

Carbonic Acid, Nitrogen and other Deleterious or 

Negative Matter 1.50 

100.00 
Table showing proportionate size and length of service pipes to give 
perfect flow of gas : 



Size of Pipe. 
Inches. 


Greatest 

Length 

Allowed. 

Feet. 


Greatest 

Number of 

Burners. 


Size of Pipe. 
Inches. 


Greatest 

Length 

Allowed. 

Feet. 


Greatest 

Number of 

Burners. 


% 

V2 

% 



20 
30 
40 
50 


1 

3 

6 

12 

20 


1 

IV4 
IV2 
2 


70 
100 
150 

200 


85 

60 

100 

200 



By experiment, 30,000 cubic feet of gas, specific gravity of .42, were dis- 
charged in an hour through a main 6 inches in diameter and 22.5 feet in 
length; and 852 cubic feet, specific gravity .398, were discharged, under a 
head of 3 inches of water, through a main 4 inches in diameter and 6 miles 
in length. 

The loss of volume of discharge by friction, in a pipe 6 inches in diam- 
eter and 1 mile in length, is estimated at 95 per cent. 



Specific Gravity. 

The specific gravit^^ of a bodj^ is the measure of its weight or density. 
The best mode of expressing it is by comparing it with the weight of water 
as a standard. A cubic foot of distilled water weighs at a temperature 01* 
60° Fahrenheit 1 ,000 ounces. A cubic foot of ice weighs 925 ounces, and 
of lard 945 ounces. If, then, in the comparison we call the gravity of wa- 
ter 1, the gravity of ice would be expressed by the decimal .925, and of 
lard by .945. Beaume's hj^drometer calls the gravity of water 10° at a 
temperature of 60°; the numbers above that in the gradation being the 
measure of lighter liquids, and those below the measure of heavier. It is 
an arbitrary standard, and should be discarded for one more sensible. To 
measure the gravity when the temperature is above OO'' for every ten degrees 
of difierence, subtract one degree from the readings of Beaume's hydrometer 
and add .005 to the readings of the water standard. When below 60°, 
subtract in place of adding and vice versa. 



182 



GRAVITY. 



Gauging by Weight. 

To gauge by weight, knowing the gravity, use the following rule : 
Divide the net weight of the oil by the weight of one gallon as found in 
the following table opposite the proper specific gravity. The weights 
should be expressed in the same denominations and due regard paid to the 
decimals. 

To find the specific gravity of a liquid without an hydrometer: 
Divide the weight of a gallon, expressed in ounces and decimals of an 
ounce, by 133.68, the quotient will be the gravity by the"water standard," 
and by reference to the table below the corresponding gravity by Beaume's 
hydrometer can be found. 

Comparison of Beaume's Scale with the Water Standard, and 

the Actual Weight of One Gallon for Bach Degree, 

in Ounces and Decimals. 



BEAUME. 


WATER 
STANDARD. 


WEIGHT 
ONE GALLON 
IN OZ. 1 


BEAUME. 


WATER 
STANDARD. 


WEIGHT 

ONE GALLON 

IN OZ. 


10° 


1.000 


133.68 


36° 


.849 


113.49 


11 


.993 


132.74 


37 


.844 


112.83 


12 


.986 


131.81 


38 


.839 


112.16 


13 


.980 


131.01 


39 


.834 


111.49 


14 


.973 


130.07 


40 


.830 


110.95 


15 


.967 


129.27 


41 


.825 


110.29 


16 


.960 


128.33 


42 


.820 


109.62 


17 


.954 


127.53 


43 


.816 


109.08 


18 


.948 


126.72 


44 


.811 


108.41 


19 


.942 


125.92 


45 


.807 


107.88 


20 


.936 


125.12 


46 


.802 


107.21 


21 


.930 


124.32 


47 


.798 


106.68 


22 


.924 


123.52 


48 


.794 


106.14 


23 


.918 


122.69 


49 


.789 


105.47 


24 


.913 


122.05 


50 


.785 


104.94 


25 


.907 


121.25 


51 


.781 


104.40 


26 


.901 


120.65 


52 


.777 


103.87 


27 


.896 


119.78 


53 


.773 


103.34 


28 


.890 


118.98 


54 


.768 


102.67 


29 


.885 


118.31 


55 


.764 


102.13 


30 


.880 


117.64 


56 


.760 


101.60 


31 


.874 


116.84 


57 


.757 


101.20 


32 


.869 


116.17 


58 


.753 


100.66 


33 


.864 


115.50 


59 


.749 


100.13 


34 


.859 


114.83 


60 


.745 


99.59 


35 


.854 


114.16 1 


61 


.741 


99.06 



Note. — In one gallon there are 231 cubic inches. In a barrel of forty- 
five gallons there are 6 cubic feet (and an excess of only 27 cubic inches). 

The Imperial standard gallon contains 10 lbs. of distilled water, and 
measures 277.27 cubic inches. 

Problems in Specific Gravity. 

I. To Find the Magnitude of a Body from its Weight. 

Find the weight of the body in ounces, and divide by the specific grav 
ity, the quotient will be the number of cubic feet in the contents. 



GRAVITY. 



183 



II. To Find the Weight of a Body from its Magnitude. 
Find the number of cubie feet in the body, and multiply by the specific 
gravit3% the product will be the number of ounces in the weight. 

III. To Find the SpeciBc Gravity of a Body. 

Case 1. — When the body is heavier than water, weigh the body both 
in air and in water, annex three ciphers to the weight in air, and divide by 
the difference of the weights, the quotient will be the specific gravity. 

Case 2. — When the body is lighter than water: Having weighed the 
light body in air, and a body heavier than water both in air and in water, 
fasten them together by a slender tie, then weigh the compound in water 
and subtract its weight from the weight of the heavy body in water ; to 
the remainder add the weight of the light body in air, and by the sum divide 
one thousand times the weight of the light body in air, the quotient will be 
the specific gravity of the light body. 

IV. To Find the Quantity of Each Ingredient in a Mixture of Two Sub- 
stances. 

1. Multiply the specific gravity of the mass by the difference between 
the specific gravities of the two ingredients for a hrst product. 

2. Multiply the specific gravity of that ingredient whose quantity is 
desired, by the difference between the specific gravities of the mass and that 
of the other ingredients for a second product. 

3. Multiply the weight of the whole mass by the second product, and 
divide by the hrst product, the quotient wmU be the weight of the ingredient 
sought. 

Specific Gravity. 

SPECIFIC WEIGHT 

GRAVITY. PER CU. FT. 

Water at 62 deg. Fahr 1.000 62.321 

METALS. 

Platinum 21.522 1342.000 

Gold 19.425 1205.000 

Mercury 13.596 848.750 

Lead 11.418 712.000 

Silver -. 10.505 655.000 

Bismuth 9.900 616.978 

Copper, hammered 8.917 556.000 

sheet 8.805 549.000 

cast 8.600 537.000 

Gun Metal, 84 copper, 16 tin 8.560 533.468 

83 " 17 " 8.460 527.235 

Nickel, hammered 8.670 540.223 

" cast 8.280 516.018 

Bearing Metal, 79 copper, 21 tin 8.730 544.062 

Brass, wire 8.540 533.000 

" cast, 75 copper, 25 zinc 8.450 526.612 

" 66 " 34 ".•••• 8.300 517.264 

" 60 " 40 " 8.200 511.032 

Bronze 8.400 524.000 

Steel 7.852 490.000 

Iron, wrought, average 7.698 480.000 

" cagt 7.110 444.000 



184 



GRAVITY. 



SPECIFIC WEIGHT 

GRAVITY. PER CU. FT. 

Zinc, sheet 7.200 449.000 

" cast 6.860 424.000 

Tin 7.409 462.000 

Antimonj- 6.710 418.174 

IronOres \ ^'''^^ 327.247 

i 3.829 238.627 

Aluminum, cast = 2.560 159.542 

MINERALS, MASONRY. ETC. 

Manganese , 8.00 498.568 

Basalt 3.00 187.000 

Glass, flint 3.00 187.000 

" plate... = 2.70 169.000 

Marble j 2-84 176.991 

' 2.52 157.019 

Granite \ ^'^^ 190.702 

( 2.36 147.077 

Soapstone 2.73 140.000 

Flint 2.63 164.200 

Feldspar 2.60 162.300 

Limestone \ 2-80 175.000 

( 2.70 169.000 

Slate \ 2.90 181.000 

(2.80 175 000 

Trap Rock 2.72 170.000 

Quartz. \ ^'^^ 78.524 

( 2.65 165.000 

Shale 2.60 162.000 

Sandstone 2.30 144.000 

Gypsum 2.30 144.000 

Masonrv \ ^-SO 144.000 

( 1.85 116.000 

Graphite 2.20 137.106 

Brick \ 2167 135.000 

( 2.000 125.000 

Chalk ] 2.78 174.000 

i 1.87 117.000 

Sulphur 2.00 125.000 

Clay ,.. 1.92 120.000 

Sand, damp 1.90 118.000 

dry 1.42 88.600 

Gravel, damp , . 1.90 118.000 

dry 1.42 88.600 

Marl 3 1-90 119.000 

i 1.60 100.000 

Mud 1.63 102.000 

Coal, anthracite 1.602 100.000 

bituminous \ ^'^^ ^^-^^O 

1.24 77.400 



GRAVITY. 18v 



SPECIFIC WEIGHT 

GRAVITY. PER CU. FT. 

Coke, dry, loose, avera.sre. .. 0.449 28.000 

Scoria 0.830 51.726 

Cement, American, loose 60 000 

well shaken ., .. 70.000 

" " thoroughly shaken 80.000 

*' " struck bushel 75 lbs 



LIQUIDS. 

Acid, sulphuric 

" nitric 

' ' acetic 

Milk 

Sea Water 

Linseed Oil 

Sperm Oil 

Olive Oil 

Alcohol, proof spirit 

" pure 

Petroleum 

Turpentine, oil 

Naphtha 

Ether = 

TIMBER. 

Ash 

Bamboo 

Beech 

Birch 

Blue Gum 

Boxwood 

Cedar of Lebanon 

Cherry, dry 

Chestnut 

Cork 

Ebony, West India 

Elm 

Greenheart 

Hawthorn 

Hazel 

Hemlock, dry 

Holly 

Hickory 

Hornbeam 

Laburnum 



Lancewood > 

Lignum Vitae j 



1.840 


114.670 


1.220 


76.031 


1.080 


67.306 


1.030 


64.100 


1.026 


64.050 


0.940 


58.680 


0.923 


57.620 


0.915 


57.120 


0.920 


57.335 


0.791 


49.380 


0.878 


54 810 


0.870 


54.310 


0.848 


52.940 


0.716 


44.700 


0.753 


47.0 


0.400 


25.0 


0.690 


43.0 


0.711 


44.4 


0.834 


52.5 


0.960 


60.0 


0.486 


30.4 


0.672 


42.0 


0.535 


33.4 


0.250 


15.6 


1.193 


74.5 


0.544 


34.0 


1.001 


62.5 


0.910 


57.0 


0.860 


54.0 


0.400 


25.0 


0.760 


47.0 


0.850 


53.0 


0.760 


47.0 


0.920 


57.0 


1.010 


63.0 


0.675 


42.0 


1.330 


83.0 


0.650 


41.0 



186 



GRAVITY. 



SPECIFIC 



WEIGHT 



GRAVITY. PER CU. FT. 



lyOCUSt 

Mahogany, Honduras . 
" Spanish. . . 

Maple . . . = 

Oak, live, dry 

" white, dry 

Pine, " " . 

" yellow, *' 

** Southern, dry. . . . 
Sycamore 

Teak, India 



Water Gum . 

Walnut 

Willow .... 
Yew 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Ivory 

India Rubber 
Lard 



Gutta Percha 

Beeswax 

Turf, dry, loose 

Pitch 

Fat 

Tallow ^ 

GASES. 

Weight per cubic foot at 32 deg. Fahr. and under 
pressure of one atmosphere : 

Air • 

Carbonic Acid 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen • 

Nitrogen • . • 

Steam • - 

Vapor of Ether 

" " Bi-Sulphide of Carbon 

Olefient Gas 



0.710 
0.560 
0.850 
0.790 
0.950 
0.830 
0.400 
0.550 
0.720 
0.590 
0.880 
0.660 
1.001 
0.610 
0.400 
0.800 

1.82 

0.93 

0.95 

0.98 

0.97 

0.401 

1.15 

93 

936 



44.0 
35.0 
53 
49.0 
59.3 
51.8 
25.0 
34.3 
45,0 
37.0 
55.0 
41 
62.5 
38.0 
25.0 
50.0 

114.000 
58.000 
59.300 
61.100 
60.500 
25.000 
71.700 
58. 000 
58.396 



0.080728 

0.12344 

0.005592 

0.089256 

0.078596 

0.05022 

0.2093 

0.2137 

0.0795 



To Find the Bulk of a Given Weight of Any Substance. 

Rule: Multiply the weight of a cubic foot of water by the specific 
gravity of the substance, and divide the given weight by that product. 
The quotient is the required bulk in cubic feet. 

Example : What is the bulk of 20,000 ounces of lead ? 
1,000 ounces X 11.36 = 11,360 
20,000 



11,360 



= 1.76 4- CU. ft. Ans. 



HAWSERS— BOILING POINT 


P. 187 


Steel Hawsers. 


CIRCUMFERENCE. 


BREAKING STRENGTH. 


SIZE OF MANILLA HAWSER 
OF EQUAL STRENGTH. 


21/2 inches. 
• 23/4 " 
3 

3^2 " 

4 


15 tons. 
18 " 
22 " 
29 " 
35 " 


7 inches. 

71/2 " 

81/2 " 
10 
121/2 " 



Effect of Heat Upon Various Bodies. 



DEGREES. 

Ammonia boils 140 

Ammonia (liquid) freezes — 46 

Antimony melts 951 

Arsenic melts 305 

Bismuth melts 476 

Blood (human) heat of 98 

" " freezes 25 

Brand\' freezes —7 

Brass melts 1,900 

Cadmium melts 600 

Coal Tir boils 325 

Cold, greatest artificial — 166 

" " natural — 56 

Common Fire 790 

Copper melts 2,548 

Glass melts 2,377 

Gold (fine) melts 2,590 

Gutta-percha softens 145 

Heat, cherry red 1,500 

" (Damcl) 1,141 

" bright red 1,860 

" red, visible by day 1,077 

'' white 2.900 

Ice melts 32 

Iron (cast) melts 3,479 

Iron (wrought) melts 3,980 



DEGREES. 

Iron, bright red in the dark 752 

" red hot in twilight 884 

Lead melts 504 

Mercury boils 662 

volatilizes 680 

freezes « -39 

Naphtha boils 186 

Petroleum boils .306 

Platinum melts 3,080 

Potassium melts 135 

Proof spirit freezes —7 

Saltpetre melts 600 

Sea-water freezes 28 

Silver (fine) melts 1,250 

Snow and Salt equal parts 

Spirit of Turpentine freezes 14 

Steel melts 2,500 

" polished, blue 580 

" " straw color 460 

Strong Wines freeze 20 

Sulphur melts., 226 

' ' Acid (sp.grav. 1 .641)freezes — 45 

Tin melts 421 

Vinous fermentation 60 to 77 

Water in vacuo boils 98 

Zinc melts 740 



orO. 



The sign — before the figures indicates that many degrees below zero 
Boiling Points of Various Fluids. • 



DEGREES. 

Ether 96 to 104 

Alcohol 173.5 

Nitric Acid 210 

Sea Salt 224.3 

Common Salt ...226 

Sulphuric Acid 600 

Sea Water 213.2 



DEGREES. 

Petroleum 316 

Oil of Turpentine 304 

Phosphorus 554 

Sulphur 570 

Linseed Oil 640 

Sweet Oil 412 

Water 212 



188 



HEATING APPARATUS. 



Hot Water Heating Apparatus. 

One square foot of boiler surface exposed to the direct action of the tire, 
or three square feet of flue, will be sufficient in a hot water apparatus to 
suppl^^ the necessary heat to about 50 superticial feet of 4 inch cast iron 
pipe. Water in pipes of 200 deg. P'ahr. 

Every square foot of glass cools about li/4 cubic feet of air as many de- 
grees per minute as there is diiference between the inside and outside tem- 
perature. 

If the difference between the inside and outside temperature should be 
50 degrees, then 1^ cubic feet of air will be cooled 50 degrees b3' each square 
foot of glass, or as much heat as is equal to this will be given off", by each 
square foot of glass. This applies also to iron. 

The expansion of water between the temperatures of 40 and 212 de- 
grees is equal to 1 gallon in ex^vy 24. 

A pipe 1 inch diameter will cool four times as fast as a pipe 4 inches 
diameter, a pipe 2 inches twice as fast, and a pipe 3 inches diameter one 
and one-third times as fast. 



Table showing the amount of pipe, four inches diameter, that will heat a 
house having a glass exposure of 800 square feet any required number 
of degrees, the temperature of the p'pes being 200 degrees. 



temperature 


temp, at which the house is REQUIRED TO BE KEPT. 


OP KXTFR- 






















NAL AIR. 


40 


45 


50 


55 


60 


65 
354 


70 


75 


80 


20 


211 


236 


263 


291 


322 


389 


428 


470 ] 




18 


204 


229 


255 


283 


314 


346 


380 


419 


460 




16 


197 


222 


248 


275 


306 


338 


372 


410 


450 




14 


190 


215 


240 


268 


298 


330 


363 


401 


441 




12 


183 


207 


233 


260 


290 


321 


355 


392 


431 




10 


176 


200 


225 


252 


281 


313 


346 


383 


422 




8 


169 


194 


217 


245 


273 


305 


337 


374 


413 




6 


162 


186 


210 


237 


265 


296 


329 


365 


403 




4 


155 


178 


203 


229 


257 


288 


320 


356 


394 




2 Below 


148 


171 


195 


221 


249 


280 


312 


347 


385 




Zero 


141 


164 


187 


214 


241 


271 


303 


338 


375 




2 Above 


134 


156 


179 


206 


233 


262 


294 


329 


366 


t 


4 


127 


150 


172 


198 


225 


254 


286 


320 


356 


fe 


6 


120 


141 


165 


190 


217 


246 


277 


311 


347 


> u 


8 


113 


134 


157 


182 


209 


238 


268 


302 


338 


03 


^o 


105 


126 


150 


174 


200 


229 


259 


292 


328 


i4 


12 


98 


119 


142 


166 


192 


220 


251 


283 


318 


14 


91 


112 


135 


159 


184 


212 


242 


274 


309 




16 


84 


105 


127 


151 


176 


204 


233 


265 


300 




18 


77 


98 


120 


143 


168 


195 


225 


256 


290 




20 


70 


91 


112 


135 


160 


187 


216 


247 


281 




22 


63 


83 


105 


128 


152 


179 


207 


238 


271 




24 


56 


76 


97 


120 


144 


170 


199 


229 


262 




26 


49 


69 


90 


112 


136 


162 


190 


220 


253 




28 


42 


61 


82 


104 


128 


154 


181 


211 


243 




30 


35 


54 


75 


97 


120 


145 


173 


202 


234 




32 


28 


47 


67 


89 


112 


137 


164 


193 


225 





HEATER— STEAM HAMMER. 



189 



MONBY VAI,UB OF F:eii;D-WAT]^R HBAT:eR. 

In Purifyingf and Heatingf the Feed Water by [Exhaust 

Steam. 







INITIAL TEMPERATURE OF WATER. STEAM 60 LBS. 




FINAL 




















TEMPJERA 


























TURE. 


32° 


40« 


50" 


6':" 


70« 


80" 


90° 


100" 


120'* 


140° 


160° 


180° 


60^ 


2.39 


1.71 


0.86 




















80 


4.09 


3.43 


2.59 


1.74 


0.88 
















100 


5.79 


5.14 


4.32 


3.49 


2.64 


1.77 


0.90 












120 


7.50 


6.85 


6.05 


5.'<i3 


4.40 


3.55 


3.68 


1.80 










140 


9.20 


8.r>7 


7.77 


6.97 


6.15 


.5.32 


4.47 


3.61 


1.84 








160 


10.90 


10.28 


9.50 


8.72 


7.91 


7.09 


6.26 


5.42 


3.67 


1.87 






180 


12.60 


12.00 


11.23 


10.46 


9.68 


8.87 


8.06 


7.23 


5.52 


.3.75 


1.91 




200 


14.30 


13.71 


13.00 


12.20 


11.43 


10.65 


9.85 


9.03 


7.36 


5 62 


3.82 


1.96 


220 


16.00 


15.42 


14.70 


14.<J0 


13.19 


12. .33 


11.64 


10.84 


9.20 


7.50 


5.73 


3.93 


240 


17.79 


17.13 


16.42 


1.5.69 


14.96 


14.20 


13.43 


12.65 


11.05 


9.37 


7.64 


5.90 


260 


19.40 


18.85 


18.15 


17.44 


16.71 


1.5.97 


1.5.22 


14.45 


11.88 


11.24 


9.56 


7.86 



The foregoing table shows the saving in fuel by heating feed- water by 
exhaust steam. To this must be added the saving obtained by purifyino- 
the water. This saving is found in the economy of fuel, due to clean boil- 
ers, and in the reduced cost of repairs and stoppages caused thereby; also 
in prolonging the life of the boiler. The saving from all these sources may 
amount to several times the cost of the boilers during their life. The dif- 
ference in fuel required between a clean boiler and one having a scale in it 
of only one-sixteenth oi an inch in thickness is placed by good authorities 
at 13 per cent in favor of the clean boiler. But for comparison we will 
call it 10 per cent. A 100-horse power boiler will require say four pounds of 
coal per horse power, and for 300 da3'S of ten hours 1,200,000 pounds, ten 
Ijer cent of whicli is 120 000 pounds; at one-quarter cent per pound is 
$300 for the 300 days and $3,000 in ten years — enough to buy 200-horse 
power of boilers. To this add the saving of repairs and lengthening the 
life of the boilers. Altogether the saving is almost be\'ond belief These 
statements are sustained bj'^ both tests and experience, and by the best 
authority-. 

To Find the Force of the Blow of a Steam Hammer. 

Rule: Add together the weight of ram and piston in pounds. Add to 
gether the stroke in feet, and depth of penetration of blow^s in feet. Multi- 
ply those two sums together and divide the product by the depth of pene- 
tration of blows in feet. The quotient will be the force of the blow in 
pounds. 

Table Showingf the Relation of Height to Weight in Man. 



Heisrht. 



Weio^ht. 



feet from 102 to 150 lbs. 



5 


" 1 inch 


5 


" 2 " 


5 


" 3 " 


5 


" 4 " 


5 


" 5 " 


5 


" 6 " 


o 


" 7 " 


o 


" 8 " 


5 


" 9 " 


5 


"10 " 


5 


"11 " 


6 


" 



106 to 155 
109 to 160 
112 to 165 
116 to 170 
119 to 175 
122 to 180 
127 to 188 
133 to 195 
138 to 203 
143 to 210 
148 to 218 
153 to 225 



190 



HEAT — HEATING. 



Table of I^atent Heat, etc., of Vapors. 



NAME. 


UNITS OF LA- 
TENT HEAT 
OF .VAPOR. 


1 

SPEC. GRAY SPEC. GRAY. 
OF VAPOR.! OF LIQUID. 
(AIR = 1) j (water =1) 


BOILING POINT 

OF 

LIQUID. 


Water 


962 

385 
162 
133 
210 
900 
300 
170 


0.45 

1.25 
2.26 
3.21 
2.60 
0.59 
1.53 
4 00 


1.00 
0.80 
0.71 
0.99 
1.27 
0.76 
0.80 
0.60 


212° Fah. 

176° " 


Alcohol 


Ether 


95° " 


Oil of Turpentine 

Bisulphide of Carbon . . . 


311° " 

112° " 

— 30° •' 




—112° " 


Chymogene 


+ 28° " 



Heating By Steam. 

In heating buildings by steam, the amount of boiler and heating pipe 
depends largely on the kind of building and its location. 

Wooden buildings require more than stone, and stone more than brick. 
Iron fronts require still more, and glass in windows demands twenty times 
as much heat as the same surface in brick walls. Also, if the heating be 
done by indirect radiation, from 50 to 100 per cent more heating pipe will 
be required than when direct radiation is used. To find the number of 
square feet of radiating surface necessary to heat a room, hall or building: 
Rule: Add together the square feet of glass in the windows, the number 
of cubic feet of air required to be changed per minute, and one-twentieth the 
surface of external wall and roof; multipl3' this sum by the difference be- 
tween the required temperature of the room and that of the external air at 
its lowest point, and divide the product by the difference in temperature 
between the steam in the pipe and the required temperature of the room. 
The quotient will be the required radiating surface in square feet. 

In indirect heating — that is, where a current of air is driven or drawn 
through a box containing coiled pipe— the efficiency of the radiating surface 
will increase, and the temperature of the air will diminish, when the quan- 
tity of the air caused to pass through the coil increases. Thus one square 
foot of radiating surface, with steam at 212 degrees, has been found to 
heat 100 cubic feet of air per hour from zero to 150 degrees, or 300 cubic 
feet from zero to 100 degrees in the same time. 

Small pipes are more effective than large. 

When the diameter is doubled 20 per cent additional surface should be 
allowed, and for three times the diameter, 30 per cent additional is required. 
Where the condensed water is returned to the boiler, or where low pressure 
of steam is used, the diameter oi mains leading from the boiler to the radiat- 
ing surface should be equal in inches to one-tenth the square root of the radi- 
ating surface, mains included, in square feet. 

Thus a one inch pipe will supply 100 square feet of surface, itself in- 
. eluded. 

Return pipes should be at least % inch in diameter, and never less than 
V2 diameter of main — longer returns requiring larger pipe. 

The amount of air required for ventilation is from 4 to 16 cubic feet 
per minute for each person, the larger amount being for prisons and 
hospitals. 



MEATINO. 191 



From V2 to 1 cubic foot per minute should be allowed for each lamp or 
gas burner used. 

One square foot of boiler heating surface will supply from 7 to 10 square 
feet of radiating surface, depending upon the size of boiler and the efficiency 
of its surface, as well as that of the radiating surface. Each horsepower 
oi boiler will supply from 240 to 360 feet of one inch steam pipe, or 80 to 
120 square feet of radiating surface. 

For rough calculations, under ordinary conditions one horse power 
will heat, approximatelj^, in 

Brick dwelhngs, in blocks 15.000 to 20,000 cubic feet 

" stores " 10,000 ' 15,000 

" dwellings,exposed ail round. 10, 000 " 15,000 

" mills, shops, factories, etc 7,000 " 10,000 

Wooden dwellings, exposed 7,000 " 10,000 

Foundries and wooden shops 6,000 " 10,000 

Exhibition buildings, largely glass. 4,000 " 15,000 
In heating buildings care should be taken to supplj^ the necessary 
moisture to keep the air from becoming dr^^ and uncomfortable. The 
capacity of air for moisture rises rapidly as it is heated, it being four times 
as great at 72 degrees as at 32 degrees. For comfort air should be kept at 
about "50 percent saturated." This would require one pound of vapor 
to be added to each 2,500 cubic feet heated from 32 degrees to 70 degrees. 
In steam heating the best results are attained by using indirect radia- 
tion to supply the necessary ventilation, and direct radiation for the rest 
of the heat. 

Boiling by Steam and the Necessity of Steam Traps. 

To boil by steam economically, it is absolutely' necessary to have all 
the steam which is used for boiling condensed inside of the heating coil, and 
nothing but condensed water should be allowed to escape from the tail 
pipes of the coils, and this should be discharged as soon or as fast as it is 
formed. If 1 pound of steam of 80 pounds pressure passes through a heat- 
ing coil without condensing, and escapes w^ith a pressure of 1 atmosphere, 
it can raise 104 pounds of water 1 degree; but the same 1 pound of steam, 
if all condensed inside of the coil, can raise 1,071 pounds of water 1 
degree, which is over nine times as much. This 1 pound of steam con- 
densed gives 1 pound of water of 212 degrees; if this remains in the heat- 
ing coil it will raise 1 pound of water of 90 degrees to 151 degrees, and 
lowering its own temperature to 151 degrees, which is too low to boil in 
the open atmosphere. If this water is not or only partly discharged it will 
cover the inside surface of the coil, and leave no space for fresh steam to 
enter to take the place of the steam already condensed, whereby the heating 
process will be slower and slower, and finally cease. 

When boilers are used for heating water in tanks, either by coils or by 
the steam entering the water, care should be taken that the outlet for steam 
from the boiler is not too large. 

Steam flowing into a vacuum at an expansive pressure equal to the 
atmosphere, travels at the rate ot 1,550 feet per second, and flowing into 
the air at the rate of 650 feet per second, for a pressure of 15 pounds per- 
square inch. 



192 



HEATING. 



By this it will be seen that a small pipe will discharge a very large 
quantity of steam. 

A two-inch pipe will discharge over 100-horse pov/er of steam into a 
coil surrounded by water sufficient to produce a vacuum, and about the 
same when the steam is discharged into water. In such cases there should 
be no more than one square inch of steam opening from the boiler for 
every 50-horse power of its capacit3% and at that rate ibr all sizes of boilers. 

When steam is used for heating water in tanks by discharging it into 
the water, there should be about 5 pounds of water brought to a tempera- 
ture of 212 degrees for every pound of water evaporated in the boiler. 

Where coils are used for heating water, they should be located above 
the boiler, and the condensed water returned to the boiler, by its own grav- 
ity, or a pump may be used to return the water, thereb^^ saving as much 
fuel as has been used to bring this water to the temperature at which it 
leaves the coils. 

BuiFalo Hot Blast Heater, with Engine Attached. 









Horse Power of 


Cubic Feet of Air 

Delivered per 

Minute at One 

Ounce t^ressure. 


Horse Power 

Required to Drive 

Fan. 


Number of Lineal 

Feet of One 

Inch Pipe in 

Heater. 


Boiler Required 
to Drive Fan and 
Supply Necessarv 

Steam to Heat- 
er Coil. 


-8,74.0 


3.1 


1,000 


12 


11,000 


4. 


1,200 


15 


15,280 


4.5 


1,600 


20 


19,900 


6. 


2,000 


25 


25,900 


7.2 


2.500 


30 


32,500 


9.1 


3,000 


35 


39,300 


11. 


3,500 


42 


49.161 


13.5 


4,000 


48 


57,720 


15. 


4,500 


54 


81,120 


20. 


5,000 


62 


101,250 


22. 


6,000 


72 



Size 


and capacity of blowers and heaters for hot blast appai 


-atus. 
^TER. 




BLOWER. 






he; 


Perpend' r 


Outlet 


Diameter Jq^.^-^. 


H. P. 


Capacity in 
Cubic Feet 


No. ft. of 1 


No. ft. of 1 


Diameter 


Width and 


and Face of 


to Drive 


Per Minute 


m. Pipe for 


in. Pipe for 


of Hous- 


Height in 


Pulley on ^^^^^^ 


Blower. 


1 Ounce 


Warming 


Dry 


ing. 


Inches. 


Blower. 






Pressure. 


Buildings. 


Houses. 


40 in. 


15 1 p 
19 h^ 

22M [ o 


lOx 4K 


825 


1.5 


6,350 


300 


450 


50 " 


12x 5H 


650 


2.3 


10,200 


500 


750 


60 *' 


14x 6H 


550 


3. 


14,300 


600 


900 


70 '' 


26 ^ 


16x 7H 


475 


4.6 


19,100 


900 


1,350 


80 " 


24 X 28 


18x 7H 


400 


6. 


24,150 


1,200 


1,800 


90 " 


28 X 30 


20x 8K 


350 


7.6 


30,200 


1,500 


2,250 


100 " 


32 X 32 


20x 8% 


325 


9.4 


36,800 


1,800 


2,700 


120 " 


42 X 42 


24xlOK 


275 


13.5 


63,400 


2,500 


3,750 


140 " 


48 X 48 


28xl2>i 


230 


18.4 


82,800 


3,500 


5.250 


160 " 


48 X 54 


32xl2M 


200 


24. 


93,150 


4,600 


6,900 



A cubic foot of air at 32^ Fah. will carry off two grains of water, while 
at 160° it will carry off ninetj^ grains. 



HYDRAULIC RAM. 193 



Sturtevant's Patent Steam Hot Blast Apparatus. 

It is the ordinary practice among engineers to base the calculation of 
heating capacity upon tlie number of pounds or cubic feet of air which may 
be heated by the condensation of one pound of steam. The specific heat of 
air at constant pressure is about .25, compared with water as a standard. 
That is to say, the heat absorbing power of air is one-fourth that of water, 
and the amount of heat required to heat one pound of water through 1° F., 
will heat four pounds of air through the same distance. In addition, one 
pound of water, evaporated into steam of 70 lbs. pressure, has a latent 
heat of 891 heat units. Or, as a heat unit is capable of raising the tem- 
perature of one pound of w^ater through 1° F. ,the heat present in one 
pound of steam of 70 lbs. pressure, will heat 891 lbs. of water, or 4 X 891 
=3500 (nearly) lbs of air through 1° F. One cubic foot of air at 70° F. 
weighs about .075 lb., and 3500 lbs. will occupy 3-\oJ> =about 46,600 cubic 
feet; i. e., the volume of air which may be heated one degree b3^ the con- 
densation of one pound of steam of above pressure. Upon this basis the 
exact amount of steam required to raise the temperature of any given vol- 
ume of air through any number of degrees can be readily calculated. Sup- 
pose it is desired to heat 500,000 cubic feet in an hour from 50° to 170°. As 
one pound of steam is required to heat 46,600 cubic feet one degree, ^^'goo* 
=about 10%. lbs. will be required to heat 500,000 cubic feet one degree, or 
120° X 10%=1290 lbs per hour to heat this volume through 120°, which 
at 30 lbs per H. P. equals 43 H. P. It is thus evident that, with the same 
volume of air, the amount of steam condensed varies directly with the rise 
in temperature of the air entering the heater. Hence may be seen the great 
advantage of returning the air to the heater, thereby reducing the amount 
of steam condensed. In the above case if the air had been returned to the 
heater at a temperature of 70° instead of 50°, the rise in temperature would 
have been only 100°, and the H. P. required would be reduced to i§g of 43 
H. P., or 35.8 H. P. Or when returned at 90° the rise will be 80°, and 
only f^Q of 43 H. P., or 28.7 H. P. will be required, resulting in a saving 
of 33 per cent of the steam used in the first instance, to do the same amount 
of heating. 

Hydraulic Ram. 

The length of supply pipe should not be less than % of the height to 
which the water is to be raised. 

One-seventh of the water may be raised to about 4 times the head of 
supply, or i\ eight times, or a^g sixteen times, etc. 

To Find the Quantity of Water Used in Cube Feet Per 

Minute. 

Rule: Multiply the constant number 881 by the effective horse-power 
and divide the product by head of water in feet. 

To Find the i^ffective Horse-Power. 

Rule: Multiply the constant number .00113 by the quantity of water 
used in cube feet per minute, and this product by the head of water in feet, 
the result will be the effective horse-powder. 

The diameter of supply pips should equal the constant number 1.45 
multiplied by the square root of the quantity of water used in cube feet per 
minute. 

13 



194 



HYDRAULICS. 



The diameter of delivery pipe should equal the constant number .75 
multiplied by the square root of the quantit\^ of water used in cube feet per 
minute. 

The contents of air vessel should equal the contents of delivery pipe. 
Hydraulic rams can be used with delivery pipes 800 to 1,000 feet in length, 
and drive pipes from 25 to 50 feet lono^. 

Flow of Water Through Nozzles. 









DIAMETER OF NOZZLES. 
























2-INCH. 


3-INCH. 


4-INCH. 


5-INCH. 


6-INCH. 


7-INCH. 


8-lNCH. 


Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu. Feet. 


Cu.Feet 


50 


1.15 


2.59 


4.60 


7.19 


10.36 


14.10 


18.40 


100 


1.63 


3.66 


6.52 


10.17 


14.64 


19.94 


26.08 


150 


2.00 


4.48 


8.00 


12.46 


17.92 


24.42 


32.00 


200 


2.30 


5.10 


9.20 


14.34 


20.64 


28.20 


36.80 


250 


2.58 


5.80 


10.32 


16.09 


23.20 


31.54 


41.28 


300 


2.82 


6.30 


11.28 


17.62 


25.44 


34.54 


45.12 


350 


3.05 


6.84 


12.20 


19.04 


27.30 


37.32 


48.80 


400 


3.26 


7.32 


13.04 


20.35 


29.28 


39.89 


52.10 


450 


3.46 


7.76 


13.84 


21.59 


31.04 


42.31 


55.36 


500 


3.64 


8.20 


14.56 


22.75 


32.80 


44.00 


58.24 



Application of above Table. 

Let the quantity of water which a 6-inch nozzle, under a 200-foot head, 
will discharge per second be required. 

In "head"' column of table, find 200 feet, opposite which in "diameters 
of nozzles in inches, 6" column, will be found 20.64 cubic feet, the quantity 
sought. The entire fall between the inlet end of a pipe 36 inches diameter, 
4 miles long, and the outlet end, at a hj-draulic mine, being 284 feet, and the 
quantity of water being 1,500 statutory miner's inches, let it be required 
to find the efficient head and the diameter of the requisite nozzle. Divide 
the given number statutory miner's inches by 50. Thus 1,500 -t- 50 = 30 
cubic feet. 

In "diameters, 36 inches" column; table of "Flow of water per second 
in clean iron pipes," find 30 cubic feet, or nearest approximate to it, 30.29 
cu, ft., opposite which, in "fall per mile" column, will be found 8.45 feet, the 
loss of head per mile. Then, 8.45 X 4 = 33.8 feet loss for the 4 miles' 
length, 284 — 33.8 = 250.2 feet efficient head sought. In "head" column 
above table, find 250, opposite which the nearest approximate number to 
30 (equivalent to 1,500 miner's inches) is 31.54 cubic feet in "diameter of 
nozzles in inches, 7" column. Then, 7 inches is the diameter of the nozzle 

sought. 

Water Pipes. 

The quantity of water which will flow through a pipe depends uponits 
head, and upon the diameter and length of the pipe. The head is the verti- 
cal distance between the level of the water's surface in the reservoir and 
the center of the outlet end of the pipe. A portion of this head is expended 
in overcoming the resistances of entry and in generating the velocity of dis- 
charge; the remainder of the head is expended in overcoming the resistances 
within the pipe. This remaining head is termed the fall, dividing which by 
the length of the pipe in miles gives the fall per mile. 



HYDRAULICS. 



195 



In pipes several miles long the entry and velocity head can be omitted, 
in practice, without material error. 

A water pipe, from its inlet en«d, should be funnel form, or conic, for a 
distance equal to three times its diameter. 

The diameter of its inlet end should be fully 20 per cent larger than the 
diameter of the main portion of the pipe. The"bell mouth" is recommended 
as the best form for the inlet end. 

The following table has been computed for the carrying capacities of 
pipes, whose lengths are not less than a thousand times their respective 
diameters. 

The computations have been made for those sizes most in use. Those 
of 9, 11, 15 and 22 inches diameters are termed at the pipe manufactories 
"running sizes." 



Flow of 


Water Per Second in Clean Iron Pipes 




PALL PER 


6-INCH 


9-INCU 


1 1-INCH 


15-INCH 


22-lNCH 


30 INCH 


36-INCH 


44 INCH 


MILE. 


DIAMETER 


DIAM. 


liIAM. 


DIAMETER BIAMETER 


DIAMETER 


DIAMETER 


DIA3IETEB 


Feet. 


Cu.Ft. 


Cu. Ft 


Cu.Ft 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 


Cu. Ft. 


1.58 












7.78 


12.70 


22.22 


2.11 












8.99 


14.56 


25.55 


2.64 












10.24 


16.35 


28.87 


3.17 










4.61 


10.97 


18.02 


31.46 


3.70 










5.25 


11.90 


19.76 


34.47 


4.22 








2.05 


5.62 


12.84 


20.85 


37.05 


4.75 








2.19 


6.01 


13.48 


22.30 


39.01 


5.28 








2.30 


6.32 


14.21 


23.47 


41.06 


5.81 








2.43 


6.62 


15.05 


24.91 


42.09 


6.34 






1.12 


2.54 


6.94 


15.81 


26.12 


44.97 


6.86 






1.17 


2.65 


7.24 


16.47 


27.20 


46.77 


7.39 






1.22 


2.75 


7.51 


17.81 


28.24 


48.83 


7.92 






1.27 


2.84 


7.78 


17.94 


29.19 


50.62 


8.45 




.779 


1.32 


2.94 


8.05 


18.58 


30.29 


52.46 


8.98 




.803 


1.36 


3.08 


8.36 


19.21 


31.42 


54.04 


9.50 




.827 


1.40 


3.11 


8.55 


19.66 


32.48 


55.48 


10.03 




.851 


1.45 


3.21 


8.85 


20.32 


33.40 


57.01 


10.56 


.298 


.875 


1.49 


3.29 


9.07 


20.79 


34.49 


58.85 


11.62 


.314 


.917 


1.58 


3.47 


9.55 


21.80 


36.15 


61.71 


12.67 


.330 


.960 


1.65 


3.63 


10.01 


22.83 


37.74 


64.35 


13.73 


.346 


1.00 


1.72 


3.79 


10.48 


23.93 


39.40 


66.87 


14.78 


.359 


1.04 


1.79 


3.95 


10.91 


24.86 


40.86 


69.57 


15.84 


.377 


1.09 


1.85 


4.11 


11.29 


25.87 


42.88 


72.32 


18.48 


.395 


1.17 


2.00 


4.46 


12.25 


27.96 


45.95 


77.95 


21.12 


.444 


1.27 


2.14 


4.78 


13.12 


29.84 


48.83 


83.60 


26.40 


.496 


142 


2.40 


5.37 


14.78 


33.55 


54.89 


93.37 


31.68 


.548 


1.56 


2.64 


5.91 


16.20 


36.79 


59.95 


103.28 


36.96 


.589 


1.69 


2.86 


6.46 


17.53 


39.66 


65.17 


111.74 


42.24 


.631 


1.81 


3.06 


6.90 


18.78 


42.39 


69.80 


119.93 


47.57 


.672 


1.92 


3.23 


7.31 


19.93 


45.23 


74.33 


128.26 


52.80 


.721 


2.03 


3.42 


7.70 


21.06 


47.71 


78,46 




63.36 


.784 


2.24 


3.76 


8.31 


23.07 


52.91 


82.84 




73.92 


.858 


2.43 


4.02 


9.15 


24.68 


57.65 






84.48 


.922 


2.61 


4.39 


9.81 


26.97 








95.04 


.975 


2.77 


4.68 


10.47 


29.70 








105.60 


1.02 


2.93 


5.25 


11.09 


31.15 








158.40 


1.26 


3.63 


6.09 


13.66 










211.20 


1.48 


4.22 


7.02 


15.84 








, 


264.00 


1.67 


4.76 


8.24 













196 



HYDRAULICS. 



Application of Table. 

Let it be required to rind the flow of water per second in a pipe 22 inches 
diameter, having 26.40 feet fall per mile ; also to find its equivalent flow in 
statutory miner's inches, or inches measured under a 4-inch pressure. 

In "fall per mile" column of table find the given head, 26.40. opposite 
which in "22-inch diameter" column will be found 14.78 cubic feet, the 
quantity sought. 

In table "Flow of Water Through Vertical Rectangular Openings," in 
column "Head on Center," find 4 inches, opposite which in "Miner's 
Inches" column will be found 51.13. Then 14.78 X 51.13 = 755.7 statu- 
tory miner's inches. Or, as in common practice, 14.78 X 50 = 739 statu- 
tory miner's inches. 



Flow of Water Over Weirs. 





FLOW PER SEC- 
OND OVER 1 
FOOT LENGTH. 


Ui 


'ER SEC- 
OVER 1 
LENGTH, 




FLOW PER SEC- 
OND OVER 1 
FOOT LENGTH. 




W ^ 
33 


FLOW I 
OND 
FOOT 




Inches 


Cubic Feet. ! 


Inches. 


Cubic Feet. 


1 Inches. 


Cubic Feet. 


1.00 


.0785 


4.00 


.6380 


7.0 


1.4868 


1.25 


.1101 


4.25 


.6985 


7.5 


1.6483 


1.50 


.1448 i 


4.50 


.7435 


8.0 


1.8158 


1.75 


.1825 


4.75 


.8253 


8.5 


1.9951 


2.00 


.2235 


5.00 


.8913 


9.0 


2.1682 


2.25 


.2672 


5.25 


.9634 


9.5 


2.3511 


2.50 


.3139 


5.50 


1.0329 


10 


2.5394 


2.75 


.3622 


5.75 


1.1043 


12 


3.3390 


3.00 


.4334 


6.00 


1.1771 


14 


4.2087 


3.25 


.4654 


6.25 


1.2513 


16 


5.1407 


3.50 


.5210 


6.50 


1.3271 


18 


6.1341 


3.75 


.5725 


6.75 


1.4043 


24 


9.4300 



A boiler should have its feed water supplied regularly and continuously 
and the water line should be kept at a regular height, and there should 
never be less than three or four inches of water over the highest part of the 
furnace, flues, or connections exposed to the flaines or hot gases, but it is 
very bad practice to carry the water too high in a boiler, and as a general 
thing the above-mentioned depth should not exceed five inches above the 
"fire-line." Blowing off steam at the safety-valve, or opening the furnace 
doors, to prevent a rise of steam pressure, causes loss of heat, which is 
synonymous with waste of fuel, and will never occur where a boiler is 
properly managed, except upon an emergency. 



HYDRAULICS. 



197 



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198 



HYDRAULICS. 



Friction of Water. 

Friction-loss in pounds pressure in 23^-inch fire hose for each 100 feet 
of length, at each 5 gallons discharged per minute. 





Friction-Loss. 


Gallons 
Discharged Per 
1 Minute. 


Friction -Less. 


Gallons 

Discharged Per 

Minute. 


Friction-Loss. 


! Gallons 
Discharged ] 
Minute. 


rO O 


li 


.Q o 




Rubber 
1- Hose. 




50 


1.40 


2.90 


155 


8.43 


10.83 


260 


24.29 


27.81 


55 


1.53 


3.07 


160 


8.99 


11.44 


265 


25.26 


28.84 


60 


1.69 


3.27 


165 


9.56 


12.06 


270 


26.26 


29.90 


65 


1.86 


3.48 


170 


10.16 


12.71 


275 


27.27 


30.97 


70 


2.06 


3.72 


175 


10.77 


13.37 


280 


28.31 


32.07 


75 


2.27 


3.97 


180 


11.41 


14.06 


285 


29.36 


33.18 


80 


2.51 


4.25 


185 


12.06 


14.76 


290 


30.44 


34.32 


85 


2.76 


4.54 


190 


12.74 


15.49 


295 


31.53 


35.47 


90 


3.04 


4.86 


195 


13.43 


16.23 


300 


32.65 


36.65 


95 


3.33 


5.19 


200 


14.15 


17.00 


310 


34.94 


39.07 


100 


3.65 


5.55 


205 


14.88 


17.79 


320 


37.31 


41.57 


105 


3.98 


5.93 


210 


15.64 


18.60 


330 


39.76 


44.15 


110 


4.34 


6.33 


215 


16.41 


19.43 


340 


42.29 


46.81 


115 


4.71 


6.75 


220 


17.21 


20.28 


350 


44.90 


49.55 


120 


5.11 


7.19 


225 


18.02 


21.15 


360 


47.59 


52.38 


125 


5.52 


7.65 


230 


18.86 


22.04 


370 


50.36 


55.29 


130 


5.96 


8.13 


235 


19.71 


22.95 


380 


53.21 


58.28 


135 


6.41 


8.63 


240 


20.59 


23.88 


390 


56.14 


61.35 


140 


6.89 


9.15 


245 


21.48 1 


24.83 


400 


59.15 


64.50 


145 


7.39 


9.69 


250 


22.40 , 


25.80 








150 


7.90 


10.25 


255 


23.33 t 


26.79 









Iron pipe having a continuous flow of water through it will corrode 
much faster than one having but a slight or no current through it. An 8. 
inch cast-iron pipe, coated, 1,000 ft. long, having a continuous current 
through it, being supplied by a 24-inch pipe and discharging through an 
open end, discharged but % as much water at the end of 6 years as when 
first put down. 

A recent experiment at Holyoke, Mass., showed that a 3-inch Globe 
valve in a line of 3-inch pipe caused a loss of pressure of from 80 lbs. to 41 
lbs. per sq. inch. 



Superheated steam is the safest and most economical method of using 
steam. First, it follows a different law from saturated steam ; it is gov- 
erned by Marrote's law of gases and air. You can, by the addition of 480 
deg. of heat to the steam in a separate vessel, or superheated, double its 
volume and also its pressure; if it were attempted to raise steam in a boiler 
to 692 deg., it would have to be strong enough to stand a pressure of 
2,500 lbs. to the square inch. 



HYDRAULICS. 



199 



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200 



HYDRAULICS. 



l/oss by Friction of Water in Pipes. 

This table shows the loss in pounds pressure per square inch for each 
100 feet in length due to friction, when discharging the given quantities of 
water per minute. 



PS . 








SIZES OF PIPES-INSIDE DIAMETEK. 










2^ 


Min. 


lin. 


IMin. 


P/zin. 


2 in. 


i'Ain. 


3 in. 


4 in. 


6 in. 


Sin.jlOiu. 


12 in. 


14)n. 


I6in. 


ISin. 


5 


3.3 
13.0 

28.7 
50.4 
78.0 


0.84 
3.16 
6.98 
12.3 
19.0 
27.5 
37.0 
48.0 


0.31 
1.05 


0.12 
47 














10 


0.12 




















15 


2.38' 0.97 
4.07 1.66 
6 40 2 62 




















20 


0.42 




















25 


0.21 


0.10 
















30 


9.15 
12.4 
16.1 
20.2 
24.9 
56.1 


3.75 
5.05 
6.52 
8.15 
10.0 
22.4 
39.0 


0.91 






! 










Si 












i 










40 




1.60 










1 










45 












i ■■ 










50 






2.44 
5.32 
9.46 
14.9 

21.2 
28.1 
37.5 


0.81 
1.80 
3.20 
4.89 
7.0 
9.46 
12.47 
19.66 
28.06 


0.35 

0.74 

1.31 

1.99 

2.85 

3.85 

5.02 

7.76 

11.2 

15.2 

19.5 

25.0 

30.8 


0.09 




1 










75 








I 










100 






0.33 


0.05 


f 










)25 


















150 










0.69 


0.10 


1 










175 










1 










'>00 










1.28 

1.89 
2.66 
3.65 
4.73 
6.01 
7.43 


0.17 
0.26 
0.37 
0.50 
0.65 
0.81 
0.96 
2.21 
3.88 














2.50 
300 
350 
400 
450 
500 
750 
1000 
1250 
1500 
1?50 
2000 
2250 
2500 
3000 
3500 
4000 
4500 
5000 










0.07 
0.09 
0.12 
16 


0.03 
0.04 
0.05 
06 


0.01 





























0.02 






























0.20l 0.07 
25: 09 




03 
















0.04 
0,08 
0.13 
0.20 
0.29 
0.38 
0.49 
0.63 
0.77 


0.017 


0.009 


0.005 




1 






0.53 
0.94 
1.46 
2.09 


0.18 
0.32 
0.49 
0.70 
0.95 
1.23 
















0.062 


0.036 


0.020 




1 





























0.135 


0.071 


040 








































0.234 


0.123 


071 









































0.362 


0.188 
0.267 
0.365 
0.472 
0.593 
0.730 


0.107 




1 
















1.110.515 


1.50 




i 


















0.697 
0.910 


0.204 




1 


















263 




1 


















0.333 

























:: ... 


0.408 



One pound of water heated in a boiler to 212 deg. is, by the addition 
of 966 units of heat, converted into 1,720 volumes of steam at atmos- 
phere pressure. The 1,720 volumes maybe taken as the measure of the 
available mechanical force — the 966 units of heat are worth 1,720 volumes 
of steam. Now, if these 1,720 volumes of -steam at 212 deg. be raised 480 
deg. higher, or to 692 deg. we will have 3,440 volumes of steam at double 
the pressure, or 15 lbs. to the square inch. The 480 deg. used upon the 
steam has given us the same quantit}^ as 966 units used upon the water. 

Heat goes /bur times /urtAer on steam than it does on water — if the 
heat costs the same as when used upon water, the clear gain is 25 per cent, 
hence the great economy in using superheated steam. 



HYDRAULICS. 



201 



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HYDRAULICS. 



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HYDRAULICS. 



203 



V:^I.OCITY AND DISCHARG]^ OF WAT:^R. 



TABLE No. 1. 

Of the actual velocities and discharges through a pipe 1 foot in diameter ; 1 
mile or 5,280 diameters in length ; and of cast iron, smooth and straight. 



Head in Feet 

Per 

100 Feet. 



Head in Feet 
Per Mile. 



Velocity in 

Feet 
Per Second. 



.0019 


.1 


.208 


.0038 


.2 


.293 


.0057 


.3 


.359 


.0076 


.4 


.415 


.0095 


.5 


.464 


.0114 


.6 


.508 


.0132 


.7 


.549 


.0151 


.8 


.585 


.0170 


.9 


.623 


.0189 


1. 


.656 


.0237 


.25 


.735 


.0284 


.5 


.805 


.0331 


.75 


.871 


.0379 


2. 


.928 


.0426 


.25 


.984 


.0473 


.5 


1.04 


.0521 


.75 


1.08 


.0568 


3. 


1.13 


.0758 


4. 


1.31 


.0947 


5. 


1.47 


.1136 


6. 


1.61 


.1325 


7. 


1.74 


.1514 


8. 


1.86 


.1703 


9. 


1.96 


.1894 


10. 


2.08 


.2273 


12. 


2.27 


.2652 


14. 


2.45 


.3030 


16. 


2.62 


.3409 


18. 


2.78 


.3788 


20. 


2.93 


.4735 


25. 


3.28 


.5682 


30. 


3.59 


.6629 


35. 


3.88 


.7576 


40. 


4.15 


.8523 


45. 


4.40 


.9470 


50. 


4.64 


1.136 


60. 


5.08 


1.326 


70. 


5.49 


1.515 


80. 


5.85 


1.704 


90. 


6.23 


L.894 


100. 


6.56 


2.083 


110. 


6.87 


2.272 


120. 


7.18 


2 462 


130. 


7.47 


2 652 


140. 


7.76 


2.841 


150. 


8.05 


3.030 


160. 


8.30 


3.219 


170. 


8.55 


3.408 


180. 


8.80 



Discharge in 


Discharge in 


Cubic Feet Per 


Cubic Feet Per 


Second. 


24 Hours. 


.1633 


14,114 


.2301 


19,880 


,2819 


24,360 


.3267 


28,229 


.3638 


31,435 


.3989 


34,464 


.4311 


37,247 


.4602 


39,760 


.4901 


42,343 


.5144 


44,431 


.5753 


49,701 


.6322 


54,604 


.6832 


59,011 


.7276 


62,870 


.7696 


66,484 


.8168 


70,572 


.8482 


73,284 


.8914 


76,982 


1.028 


88,862 


1.150 


99,403 


1.264 


109,209 


1.366 


118,022 


1.455 


125,740 


1.539 


132,969 


1.633 


141,145 


1.782 


153,964 


1.924 


166,233 


2.057 


177,724 


2.183 


188,611 


2.301 


198,806 


2.572 


222,156 


2.819 


243,604 


3-047 


263,260 


3.267 


282,288 


3.451 


298,209 


3.638 


314,352 


3.989 


344,649 


4.311 


372,470 


4.602 


397,613 


4.900 


423,435 


5.144 


444,312 


5.395 


466,128 


5.639 


487,209 


5.866 


506,822 


6.094 


526,521 


6.322 


546,048 


G.534 


564,576 


6.715 


580,176 


6.903 


596.418 



204 



HYDRAULICS. 



TABLE No. 1— Continued. 



Head in Feet 




Velocity in 


Discharge in 


Discharge in 


Per 


Head in Feet 


Feet 


Cubic Feet Per 


Cubic Feet Per 


100 Feet. 


Per Mile. 


Per Second. 


Second. 


24 Hours. 


3.596 


190. 


9.04 


7.100 


613,440 


3.788 


200. 


9.28 


7.276 


628,704 


4.261 


225. 


9.84 


7.696 


664.848 


4.735 


250. 


10.4 


8.168 


705,728 


5.208 


275. 


10.8 


8.482 


732,844 


5.682 


300. 


11.3 


8.914 


769,824 


6.629 


350. 


12.3 


9.621 


831,168 


7.576 


400. 


13.1 


10.28 


888,624 


8.532 


450. 


13.9 


10.91 


943,056 


9.47 


500. 


14.7 


11.50 


994,032 


10.41 


550. 


15.4 


12.09 


1,044,576 


11.36 


600. 


16.1 


12.64 


1,092,096 


12.30 


650. 


16.7 


13.11 


1,132,704 


13.25 


700. 


17.4 


13.66 


1,180,224 


14.20 


750. 


18.0 


14.13 


1,220,832 


15.15 


800. 


18.6 


14.55 


1,257,408 


16.09 


850. 


19.1 


15.00 


1,296,000 


17.04 


900. 


19.6 


15.39 


1,329,696 


17.99 


950. 


20.3 


15.94 


1,377,216 


18.94 


1000. 


20.8 


16.33 


1,411,456 


22.73 


1200. 


22.7 


17.82 


1,539,648 


26.52 


1400. 


24.5 


19.24 


1,662,336 


30.30 


1600. 


26 2 


20.57 


1,777,248 


34.08 


1800. 


27.8 


21.83 


1,886,112 


37.87 


2000. 


29.3 


23.01 


1,988,064 


47.35 


2500. 


32.8 


25.72 


2,221,560 


56.81 


3000. 


35.9 


28.19 


2,436,040 



Head is the vertical distance from the surface of the water in the reser- 
voir to the center of gravity of the lower end of the" pipe when the discharge 
is into the air; or to the level surface of the lower reservoir when the dis- 
charge is under water. 

To reduce cubic feet to U. S. Gallons. Alultiply by 7.48. Since, there- 
fore, 8 cubic feet are equal to 60 gallons (about), if we divide the cubic feet 
per 24 hours b\^ 8, we get the number of persons that may be daily sup- 
plied with 60 gallons each, by a pipe constantly running- full, and at the 
velocity given in the third column. 



Don't forget that the grain of a well-hardened and broken piece of steel 
is much finer than that of the bar it was taken from. If the grain is as 
coarse as, or coarser than the original bar, the heat used (whatever it may 
have been) was too high to refine the steel in hardening. Don't decide the 
quality of any bar of steel by the appearance of its grain. The coarseness 
or fineness depends much more on the heat at which it left the hammer or 
rolls than on its quality. 

Don't try to harden any bar of steel without first removing the scale 
from it, as the outside will be likely to be soft enough to file easily. 

Don't try to harden large tools in a small bath, or in still water. 



HYDRAULICS. 



205 



1 


5 




132704 
190144 
232960 
265408 
294912 
324096 
353888 
380928 
398080 
427584 




842336 
1189552 
1258656 
1684912 
1884432 
2063920 
2228656 
2380032 
2527488 
2663424 




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206 



HYDRAULICS. 



Weight of Water (At 62^A lbs. per Cubic Foot) Contained in 
One Foot I^engtb of Pipe of Different Bores. 



BORE. 


WATER. 


BORE. 


WATER. 


BORE. 


WATER. 


BORE. 


WATER. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Vs 


.00531 


3 


3.0557 


73/4 


20.392 


18 


110.00 


V4 


.02122 


31/8 


3.3156 


8 


21.729 


i8y2 


116.20 


% 


.04775 


31/4 


3.5862 


8I/4 


23.109 


19 


122.56 


V2 


.08488 


33/8 


3.8673 


8V2 


24.530 


191/2 


129.10 


% 


.13263 


3V2 


4.1591 


834 


25.993 


20 


135.81 


% 


.19098 


3% 


4.4615 


9 


27.501 


2L 


149.73 


% 


.25994 


33/4 


4.7745 


9V2 


30.641 


22 


164.33 


1 


.33952 


3% 


5.0980 


10 


33.952 


23 


179.60 


11/8 


.42969 


4 


5.4323 


IOV2 


37.432 


24 


195.56 


IV4 


.53050 


414 


6.1325 


11 


41.082 


25 


212.20 


1% 


.64190 


41/2 


6.8750 


111/2 


44.901 


26 


229.51 


11/2 


.76392 


43/4 


7.6601 


12 


48.891 


27 


247.51 


1% 


.89654 


5 


8.4880 


121/2 


53.049 


28 


266.18 


1% 


1.0398 


5V4 


9.3580 


13 


57.379 


29 


285.53 


1% 


1.1936 


51/2 


10.270 


i3y2 


61.877 


30 


305.57 


2 


1.3581 


53/4 


11.225 


14 


66.545 


31 


326.27 


2% 


1.5331 


6 


12.223 


I4y2 


71.384 


32 


347.66 


21/4 


1.7188 


61^ 


13.262 


15 


76.392 


33 


369.74 


23/8 


1.9150 


6% 


14.345 


i5y2 


81.568 


34 


392.48 


21/2 


2.1220 


63/4 


15.469 


16 


86.916 


35 


415.90 


2% 


2.3395 


7 


16.636 


I61/2 


92.434 


36 


440.0 


234 


2.5676 


714 


17.846 


17 


98.121 






2% 


2.8063 


7y2 


19.098 


171/2 


103.97 







And in larger pipes, as the squares of their bores. Thus a pipe of 40 or 
60 inches bore will contain four times as much as one of 20 or 30 inches 
bore; and one of ^q, one-fourth as much as one of % inch. At 62i/4 lbs. per 
cubic foot, a square inch of water 1 foot high weighs .432292 of a lb. 

Water is sometimes used for testing boilers through its expansion by 
heat, and this is the ratio of its increase: At a temperature of 42 degrees 
Fahr. it is at its greatest density, or 1.00000 in bulk; at 62 deg. its bulk is 
increased to 1.00083; at 92 deg. 1.00477; at 122 deg. 1.01116; at 152 
deg. 1.01934; at 182 deg. 1.02916 ; at 212 deg. it is 1.04012. 



Every boiler should be supplied with two nozzles, one for steam outlet 
and one for the safet\'-valve. The practice of putting up a nest of boilers 
with only one safety-valve is dangerous and pernicious. Every boiler 
should have its own independent safety-valve. There should be a door at 
rear end of setting 3 by 2 feet. This is important to facilitate cleaning the 
bottom of boiler, and for removing ashes that may accumulate in rear of 
bridge wall. The man-hole frame should be put on the inside of boiler 
shell. If well done, a more effective reinforcing of the strength of man-hole 
is secured, as well as a tighter joint. Many boiler foundations are simply 
brick-work laid on the ground. This is wrong. When the boiler has been 
used a short time, the foundations settle and the walls crack and tumble 
down. The walls should be heavy, with air spaces in the center to prevent 
fractures from expansion and contraction. 



HYDRAULICS. 



207 



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208 



HYDROSTATICS. 



Pressure of Water Per Square Inch for Different Heights. 





;-i 




u 




!-i 




u 






<u 




n3 
<u 


72 . 






-(-> 
^ 


t^ 


■+J 




^ 






t^ 


P^ 


CLh 


Ph 


a, 


fe 


(^ 


fo 


Clh 


1 


0.43 


135 


58.48 


270 


116.96 


425 


184 10 


5 


2.16 


140 


60.64 


275 


119.12 


450 


195.00 


10 


4.33 


145 


62.81 


280 


121.29 


475 


205.77 


15 


6.49 


150 


64.97 


285 


123.45 


500 


216.58 


20 


8.66 


155 


67.14 


290 


125.62 


525 


227.42 


25 


10.82 


160 


69.31 


295 


127.78 


550 


238.25 


30 


12.99 


165 


71.47 


300 


129.95 


575 


249. 09 


35 


15.16 


170 


73.64 


305 


132.12 


600 


259.90 


40 


17.32 


175 


75.80 


310 


134.28 


625 


270. 73 


45 


19.49 


180 


77.97 


315 


136.46 


650 


281.56 


50 


21.65 


185 


80.14 


320 


138.62 


675 


292.40 


55 


23.82 


190 


82.30 


325 


140.79 


700 


303.22 


60 


25.99 


195 


84.47 


330 


142.95 


725 


314.05 


65 


28.15 


200 


86.63 


335 


145.12 


750 


324.88 


70 


30.72 


205 


88.80 


340 


147.28 


775 


335.72 


75 


32.48 


210 


90.96 


345 


149.45 


800 


346.54 


80 


34.65 


215 


93.13 


350 


151.61 


825 


357.37 


85 


36.82 


220 


95.30 


355 


153.78 


850 


368.20 


90 


38.98 


225 


97.46 


360 


155.94 


875 


379.03 


95 


41.15 


230 


99.63 


365 


158.10 


900 


389.86 


100 


43.31 


235 


101.79 


370 


160.27 


925 


400.70 


105 


45.48 


240 


103.96 


375 


162.45 


950 


411.54 


110 


47.64 


245 


106.13 


380 


164.61 


975 


422.35 


115 


49.81 


250 


108.29 


385 


166.78 


1000 


433.18 


120 


51.98 


255 


110.46 


390 


168.94 


1500 


650.00 


125 


54.15 


260 


112.62 


395 


171.11 


2000 


866.50 


130 


56.31 


265 


114.79 


400 


173 27 


3000 


1300.00 



To compute the pressure per square inch of a column of water, raulti- 
ply the head in feet by .434. 



A stop valve should in all cases be placed upon the feed-pipe to a boiler, 
and as close to the boiler as possible. The chief object being to cover all 
valves behind it so that if anything happens to the check valve or any part 
of the pump, communication with the boiler can be shut off at once, allow- 
ing any necessary work to be done. The object of a check-valve is not only 
to hold the water from returning through the pipes, but is necessary to re- 
lieve the pressure, also lessen the wear and tear upon the valves of the 
pump. A pump will, if in good order, supply a boiler without a check- 
valve, but should any air get inside the pump, it will be found very difficult 
if not impossible, to start it. 



209 



WE^IGHT OF FI/AT ROI^l^E^D IRON PER I,INEAI< 

FOOT. 



For Thicknesses from ^^ in. to 2 in and Widths from i in. 

to 12% in. 



weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. 



Thickness 


V 


1 '4 


1 
IK" ' 


ill Inches. 






i'« 


.208 


.260 


.313 


M 


.417 


.521 


.625 


^ 


.625 


.781 


.938 


H 


.833 


1.04 


1.25 


h 


1.04 


1.30 


1.56 


% 


1.25 


1.56 


1.88 


/g 


1.46 


1.82 


2.19 


li 


1.67 


2.08 


2.50 


h 


1.88 


2.34 


2.81 


% 


2.08 


2.60 


3.13 


H 


2,29 


2.86 


3.44 


% 


2.50 


3.13 


3.75 


\% 


2.71 


3.39 


4.06 


% 


2.92 


3.65 


4.38 


^1 


3.13 


3.91 


4.69 


1 


3.33 


4.17 


5.00 


l/e 


3.54 


4.43 


5.31 


1% 


3.75 


4.69 


5.63 


li^e 


3.96 


4.95 


5.94 


IM 


4.17 


5.21 


6.25 


^h 


4.37 


5.47 


6.56 


1% 


4.58 


5.73 


6.88 


1/g 


4.79 


5.99 


7.19 


1)1 


5.00 


6.25 


7.50 


u% 


5.21 


6.51 


7.81 


1% 


5.42 


6.77 


8.13 


Hh 


5.63 


7.03 


8.44 


\% 


5.83 


7.29 


8.75 1 


111 


6.04 


7.55 


9.06 


1% 


6.25 


7.81 


9.38 


lit 


6.46 


a 07 


9.69 


2 


6.67 


8.33 


10.00 



1%" 

.365 

.729 
1.09 
1.46 

1.82 
2.19 
2.55 
2.92 

3.28 
3.65 
4.01 
4.38 

4.74 
5.10 
5.47 
5.83 

6.20 
6.56 
6.93 
7.29 

7.66 

8.02 
8.39 
8.75 

9.11 

9.48 

9.84 

10.21 

10.57 
10,94 
11.30 
11.67 



2'' 


1 
214^^ 


.417 


.469 


.833 


.938 


1.25 


1.41 


1.67 


1.88 


2.08 


2.34 


2.50 


2.81 


2.92 


3.28 


3.33 


3.75 


3.75 


4.22 


4.17 


4.69 


4.58 


5.16 


5.00 


5.63 


5.42 


6.09 


5.83 


6.56 


6.25 


7.03 


6.67 


7.50 


7.08 


7.97 


7.50 


8.44 


7.92 


8.91 


8.33 


9.38 


8.75 


9.84 


9.17 


10.31 


9.58 


10.78 


10.00 


11.25 


10.42 


11.72 


10.83 


12.19 


11.25 


12.66 


11.67 


13.13 


12.08 


13.59 


12.50 


14.06 


12.92 


14.53 


13.33 


15.00 



.521 
1.04 
1.56 

2.08 

2 60 
3.13 
3.65 
4.17 

4.69 
5.21 
5.73 
6.25 

6.77 
7.29 
7.81 
8.33 

8.85 

9.38 

9.90 

10.42 



13.02 
13.54 
14.06 
14.58 

15.10 
15.63 
16.15 
16.67 



234^/ 



.573 
1.15 
1.72 
2.29 

2 86 
3.44 
4 01 
4.58 

5.16 
5.73 
6,30 

6.88 

7.45 
8.02 
8.59 
9.17 

9.74 
10 31 
10.89 
11.46 



10.94 12.03 

11.46 12.60 

11.98 13.18 

12.50 13.75 



14.32 
14.90 
15.47 
16.04 

16.61 
17.19 
17.76 
18.33 



12^ 



2.50 

5.00 

7.50 

10.00 

12.50 
15.00 
17.50 
20.00 

22.50 
25.00 
27.50 
30.00 

32.50 
35.00 
37.50 
40.00 

42.50 
45.00 
47.50 
50.00 

52.50 
55.00 
57.50 
60.00 

62.50 
65.00 
67.50 
70.00 

72.50 
75.00 
77.50 
80.00 



14 



210 



IRON. 



WEIGHT OF PLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL POOT. 

{Continued.) 



Thick- 




















ness in 
Incties. 


3^^ 


3V^'' 


3V2^^ 


33/4^^ 


4^^ 


41/i^^ 


41/2'^ 


4%'' 


12^' 


1^6 


.625 


.677 


.729 


.781 


.833 


.885 


.938 


.990 


2.50 


i 


1.25 


1.35 


1.46 


1.56 


1.67 


1.77 


1.88 


1.98 


5.00 


h 


1.88 


2.03 


2.19 


2.34 


2.50 


2.66 


2.81 


2.97 


7.50 


i 


2.50 


2.71 


2.92 


3.13 


3.33 


3.54 


3.75 


3.96 


10.00 


h 


3.13 


3.39 


3.65 


3.91 


4.17 


4.43 


4.69 


4.95 


12.50 


1 


3.75 


4.06 


4.38 


4.69 


5.00 


5.31 


5.63 


5.94 


15.00 


1 6 


4.38 


4.74 


5.10 


5.47 


5.83 


6.20 


6.56 


6.93 


17.50 


\ 


5.00 


5.42 


5.83 


6.25 


6.67 


7.08 


7.50 


7.92 


20.00 


i% 


5.63 


6.09 


6.56 


7.03 


7.50 


7.97 


8.44 


8.91 


22.50 


1 


6.25 


6.77 


7.29 


7.81 


8.33 


8.85 


9.38 


9.90 


25.00 


\h 


6.88 


7.45 


8.02 


8.59 


9.17 


9.74 


10.31 


10.89 


27.50 


1 


7.50 


8.13 


8.75 


9.38 


10.00 


10.63 


11.25 


11.88 


30.00 


n 


8.13 


8 80 


9.48 


10.16 


10.83 


11.51 


12.19 


12.86 


32.50 




8.75 


9.48 


10.21 


10.94 


11.67 


12.40 


13.13 


13.85 


35.00 


il 


9.38 


10.16 


10.94 


11.72 


12.50 


13.28 


14.06 


14.84 


37.50 


1 


10.00 


10.83 


11.67 


12.50 


13.33 


14.17 


15.00 


15.83 


40.00 


iiV 


10.63 


11.51 


12.40 


13.28 


14.17 


15.05 


15.94 


16.82 


42.50 


ll 


11.25 


12.19 


13.13 


14.06 


15.00 


15.94 


16.88 


17.81 


45.00 


U^s 


11.88 


12.86 


13.85 


14.84 


15.83 


16.82 


17.81 


18.80 


47.50 


1^' 


12.50 


13.54 


14.58 


15.63 


16.67 


17.71 


18.75 


19.79 


50.00 


li'e 


13.13 


14.22 


15.31 


16.41 


17.50 


18.59 


19.69 


20.78 


52.50 


11 


13.75 


14.90 


16.04 


17.19 


18.33 


19.48 


20.63 


21.77 


55.00 


I/g 


14.38 


15.57 


16.77 


17.97 


19.17 


20.36 


21.56 


22.76 


57.50 


1| 


15.00 


16.25 


17.50 


18.75 


20.00 


21.25 


22.50 


23.75 


60.00 


ll^e 


15.63 


16.93 


18.23 


19.53 


20.83 


22.14 


23.44 


24.74 


62,50 


11 


16.25 


17.60 


18.96 


20.31 


21.67 


23.02 


24.38 


25.73 


65.00 


111 


16.88 


18.28 


19.69 


21.09 


22.50 


23.91 


25.31 


26.72 


67.50 


1| 


17.50 


18.96 


20.42 


21.88 


23.33 


24.79 


26.25 


27.71 


70.00 


IB 


18.13 


19.64 


21.15 


22.66 


24.17 


25.68 


27.19 


28.70 


7^.50 


1| 


18.75 


20.31 


21.88 


23.44 


25.00 


26.56 


28.13 


29.69 


75.00 


IM 


19. 38 


20.99 


22.60 


24.22 


25.83 


27.45 


29.06 


30.68 


77.50 


2 


20.00 


21.67 


23.33 


25.00 


26.67 


28.33 


30.00 


31.67 


80.00 



Inertia is that property of all bodies by which they can not stop them- 
selves if started in motion, nor start themselves if not in motion, nor 
change their direction or speed of motion if they are moving. They must 
be started, stopped, slowed, hastened, or swerved by some force from with- 
out. 



WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 
{Continued.) 



211 



Thickness 
in Inches 



IM 

1 3 

IH 

IM 

li^ 

1^ 

1% 



* 1 fi 

1% 

2 



5'' 


514" 


5V2'' 


1.04 


1.09 


1.15 


2.08 


2.19 


2.29 


3.13 


3.28 


3.44 


4.17 


4.38 


4.58 


5.21 


5.47 


5.73 


6.25 


6.56 


6.88 


7.29 


7.66 


8.02 


8.33 


8.75 


9.17 



53/4'^ 



1.20 
2.40 
3.59 
4.79 

5.99 
7.19 
8 39 
9.58 



9.38 9.84 10.31 10.78 
10.42 TO. 94 111.46 11.98 
11.46 12.03 12.60 
12.50 13.13 13.75 



1.25 
2.50 
3.75 

5.00 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

10.00 

11.25 

12.50 

13.18 13.75 

14.38 15.00 



13.54 14.22 
14.58 115.31 
15.63 16.41 17.19 1 17.97 



14.90 ; 15.57 
16.04 16.77 



16.67 

17.71 
18.75 
19 79 
20.83 



17.50 

18.59 
19.69 

20.78 
21.88 



18.33 i 19.17 



19 48 

20 63 
21.77 
22.92 



21.88 22.97 j24 06 
22.92 124.06 |25,21 
23.96 25.16 26 35 
25.00 126.25 '27.50 



26.04 
27.08 
28.13 
29.17 

30.21 
31.25 
32.29 
33.33 



27.34 28.65 
28.44 29.79 
29.53 30 94 
30.63 32.08 



31.72 
32.81 
33.91 
35.00 



33.23 
34.38 
35.52 
36.67 



20.36 
21.56 
22.76 
23.96 

25.16 
26.35 
27.55 

28.75 

29.95 
31.15 
32.34 
33.54 

34.74 
35.94 
37.14 
38.33 



16.25 
17.50 
18.75 
20.00 

21.25 
22.50 
23.75 
25.00 

26.25 
27.50 
28.75 
30.00 

31.25 
32.50 
33.75 
35.00 

36.25 
37-50 
38.75 
40.00 



61/4' 



1.30 
2.60 
3.91 
5.21 

6.51 

7.81 

9.11 

10.42 

11.72 
13.02 
14.32 
15.63 

16.93 
18.23 
19.53 
20.83 

22,14 
23.44 
24.74 
26.04 

27.34 
28.65 
29.95 
31.25 

32.55 
33.85 
35.16 
36.46 

37.76 
39.06 



1.35 
2.71 
4.06 
5.42 

6.77 

8.13 

9.48 

10.83 

12.19 
13.54 
14.90 
16.25 

17.60 
18.96 
20.31 
21.67 

23.02 
24.38 
25.73 

27.08 

28.44 
29.79 
31.15 
32.50 

33. 85 
35.21 
36.56 
37.92 

39.27 
40.63 



63/4^^ 

1.41 

2.81 
4.22 
5.63 

7.03 

8.44 

9.84 

11.25 

12.66 
14.06 
15.47 
16.88 



12^ 



2.50 

5.00 

7.50 

10.00 

12.50 
15.00 
17.50 
20.00 

22.50 
25.00 
27.50 
30.00 



18.28 32.50 

19.69 35.00 

21.09 37.50 

22.50 40.00 



40.36 i 41.98 
41.67 ' 43.33 



23.91 
25.31 
26.72 
28.13 

29.53 
30.94 
32.34 
33.75 

35 16 
36.56 
37.97 
39.38 

40.78 
42.19 
43.59 
45.00 



42.50 
45.00 
47.50 
50.00 

52.50 
55.00 
57.50 
60.00 

62.50 
65.00 
67.50 
70.00 

72.50 
75.00 
77.50 
80.00 



The feed- water for a boiler should be introduced through its own inde- 
pendent pipe, with a suitable check and stop valve. It is not good practice 
to blow and feed through the same pipe. Tubes of greater diameter than 
3 inches may be used with good results; all depends upon their proper ar- 
rangement. All internal boiler braces should be made of iron one inch in 
diameter with no weld, and only the best iron should be used, preferably 
Norway, or Swedish iron. 



212 



WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 

(Continued.) 



Thickness 
in Inches 


7- 


714'^ 


7^2^^ 


73/4^^ 


1 
8'' 


sy^'' 


SVa^^ 


8%'' 


12^^ 


1^6 


1.46 
2.92 
4.38 
5.83 


1.51 
3.02 
4.53 
6.04 


1.56 
3.13 
4.69 

6.25 

1 


1.61 
3.23 

4.84 
6.46 


i 1.67 
3.33 
5.00 

1 6.67 

1 


r 

1 1.72 
3.44 
5.16 
6.88 


1.77 
3.54 
5.31 

7.08 


1.82 
3 65 
5.47 
7.29 


2.50 

5.00 

7.50 

10.00 


% 

V2 


7.29 

8.75 

10.21 

11.67 


7.55 

9.06 

10.57 

12.08 


7.81 

9.38 

|10.94 

12.50 


8.07 

9.69 

11.30 

12.92 


8.33 
10.00 
11.67 
13.33 


8.59 
10.31 
12.03 
13.75 


8.85 
10.63 
12.40 
14.17 


9.11 
10.94 
12.76 
14.58 


12.50 
15.00 
17.50 
20.00 


11 


13.13 

14.58 
16.04 
17.50 


13.59 
15.10 
16.61 
18.13 


14.06 
15.63 
17.19 
18.75 


14.53 
16.15 
17.76 
19.38 


15.00 
16.67 
18.33 
20.00 


15.47 
17.19 
18.91 
20.63 


15.94 
17.71 
19.48 
21.25 


16.41 
18.23 
20.05 

21.88 


22.50 
25.00 
27.50 
30.00 


13 
1 6 

% 

1 


18.96 
20.42 
21.88 
23.33 


19.64 
21.15 
22.66 
24.17 


20.31 
21.88 
23.44 
25.00 


20.99 
22.60 
24.22 
25.83 


21.67 
23.33 
25.00 
26.67 


22.34 
24.06 
25.78 
27.50 


23.02 
24.79 
26.56 
28.33 


23.70 
25.52 
27.34 
29.17 


32.50 
35.00 
37.50 
40.00 


1% 

1'4 


24.79 
26.25 
27.71 
29.17 


25.68 
27.19 
28.70 
30.21 


26.56 
28.13 
29.69 
31.25 


27.45 
29.06 
30.68 
32.29 


28.33 
30.00 
31.67 
33.33 


29.22 
30.94 
32.66 
34.38 


30.10 
31.88 
33.65 
35.42 


30.99 
32.81 
34.64 
36.46 


42.50 
45.00 
47.50 
50.00 


It 

ll'e 


30.62 
32.08 
33.54 , 
35.00; 


31.72 
33.23 
34.74 
36.25 


32.81 
34.38 
35.94 
37.50 


33.91 
35.52 
37.14 
38.75 


35.00 
36.67 
38.33 
40.00 , 


36.09 
37.81 
39.53 
41.25 


37.19 
38.96 
40.73 
42.50 


38.28 
40.10 
41.93 
43.75 


52.50 
55.00 
57.50 
60.00 


1% 


36.46 ' 
37.92 
39.38 I 
40.83 


37.76 
39.27 

40.78 
42.29 


39.06 
40.63 
42.19 
43.75 


40.36 
41.98 
43.59 
45.21 


41.67 
43.33 

45.00 1 

46.67 f 

1 


42.97 
44.69 
46.41 
48.13 


44.27 
46.04 

47.81 
49.58 


45.57 

47.40 
49.22 
51.04 


62.50 
65.00 
67.50 
70.00 


iM 

1% 
111 

2 


42.29 
43.75 
45.21 
46.67 


43.80 
45.31 
46.82 
48.33 


45.31 

46.88 
48.44 
50.00 


46.82 
48.44 
50.05 
51.67 


48.33 

50.00 : 

51.67 
53.33 


49.84 
51.56 
53.28 
55.00 


51.35 
53.13 
54.90 
56.67 


52.86 
54.69 
56.51 
58.33 


72.50 
75.00 
77.50 
80.00 



















It is not practicable to lift water as high as 333^ feet. It might be pos- 
sible under favorable conditions at the level of the sea -where the atmos- 
pheric pressure would just about balance a column of water of that height. 
The height to which a pump will lift water depends on the pressure of the 
atmosphere, which is different at different heights from the sea, being less 
as the height increases. On a high mountain a pump will not lift water as 
high as it will at the level of the sea. The pressure of the atmosphere also 
varies slightly at different times on the same level. 



WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 
{Continued. ) 



213 



Thickness 
in Inches. 



1,^ 

1 5 

1% 

IH 

nh 

J- 16 

IK 
IIS 



9" 



1.88 
3.75 
5.63 
7.50 



91/4'' 



9.38 9.64 
11.25 11.56 
13.13 13.49 
15.00 15.42 



1.93 
3 85 
5.78 
7.71 



16.88 
18.75 
20.63 
22.50 

24.38 
26.25 
28.13 



17.34 
19.27 
21.20 
23.13 

25.05 

26.98 
28.91 



30.00 30.83 



31.88 
33.75 
35.63 
137.50 

139.38 
41.25 
43.13 

|45.00 

46.88 
48.75 
50.63 
52.50 

54.38 
56.25 
58.13 
60.00 



32.76 
34.69 
36.61 
38.54 

40.47 
42.40 
44.32 
46.25 

48.18 
50.10 
52.03 
53.96 



91/2' 



1.98 
3.96 
5.94 
7.92 

9.90 
11.88 
13.85 
15.83 

17.81 
19.79 
21.77 
23.75 

25.73 
27.71 
29.69 
31.67 

33.65 
35.63 
37.60 
39.58 

41.56 
43.54 
45.52 
47.50 

49.48 
51.46 
53.44 
55.42 



9%' 



W 



55.89 57.40 
57.81 59.38 
59.74 61.35 
61.67 63.33 



2.03 
4.06 
6.09 
8.13 

10.16 
12.19 
14.22 
16.25 

18.28 
20.31 
22.34 
24.38 

26.41 
28.44 
30.47 
32.50 

34.53 
36.56 
38.59 
40.63 

42.66 
44.69 
46.72 

48.75 

50.78 
52.81 
54.84 
56.88 

58.91 
60.94 
62.97 
65.00 



2 08 
4.17 
6.25 
8.33 

10.42 
12.50 
14.58 
16.67 

18.75 
20.83 
22.92 
25.00 

27.08 
29.17 
31.25 
33.33 

35.42 
37.50 
39.58 
41.67 

43.75 
45.83 
47.92 
50.00 

52.08 
54.17 
56.25 
58.33 

60 42 
62.50 
64.58 
66.67 



low 



2.14 
4.27 
6.41 

8.54 

10.68 
12.81 
14.95 

17.08 

19.22 
21.35 
23.49 
25.62 



lOVo 



2.19 
4.38 
6.56 

8.75 

10.94 
13.13 
15.31 

17.50 



1034' 



12' 



2.24 
4.48 
6.72 
8.96 

11.20 
13.44 
15.68 
17.92 



36.30 
38.44 
40.57 
42.71 

44.84 
46.98 
49.11 
51.25 

53.39 
55.52 
57.66 
59.79 

61.93 
64.06 
66.20 
68.33 



37.19 
39.38 
41.56 
43.75 

45.94 
48.13 
50.31 
52.50 

54.69 
56.88 
59.06 
61.25 

63.44 
65.63 
67.81 
70.00 



38.07 
40.31 
42.55 
44.79 

47.03 
49.27 
51.51 
53.75 

55.99 
58.23 
60.47 
62.71 

64.95 
67.19 
69.43 
71.67 



2.50 

5.00 

7.50 

10.00 

12.50 
15.00 
17.50 
20.00 



19.69 20.16 I 22.50 
21.88 22.40 25.00 
24.06 24.64 1 27.50 
26.25 I 26.88 ! 30.00 



27.76 28.44 \ 29.11 ] 32.50 

29.90 30.63 1 31.35 35 00 

32.03 32.81 ! 33.59 37.50 

34.17 35.00 i 35.83 ; 40.00 



42.50 
45.00 
47.50 
50.00 

52. 50 
55.00 
57.50 
60.00 

62.50 
65.00 
67.50 
70.00 

72.50 
75.00 
77.50 
80.00 



At the instant steam is generated, in a boiler, from the water heated to 
212 deg. temperature, the steam has a pressure of one atmosphere, about 
15 lbs. per square inch above zero or vacuum gauge, and the pressure in the 
boiler b\' a vacuum gauge would show 15 lbs., the same as atmospheric 
pressure would show on a zero pressure or vacuum gauge. The steam pres- 
sure in the boiler when the ste im gauge indicates 15 lbs. pressure is 15 lbs. 
above the pressure of the air outside, and is (nearly) 30 lbs., actual or ab- 
solute pressure above zero or no pressure. 



214 



IRON. 



WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER LINEAL FOOT. 
{Continued.) 



Thickness 
in Inches. 


11^' 


113^^^ 


IIK'^ 


IIM'' 


12'" 


12%'' 


12K'^ 


12%" 




le 


2.29 


2.34 


2.40 


2.45 


2.50 


2.55 


2.60 


2.66 


H 


4.58 


4.69 


4.79 


4.90 


5.00 


5.10 


5.21 


5.31 




3 

Is 


6.88 


7.03 


7.19 


7.34 


7.50 


7.66 


7.81 


7.97 


^i* 


M 


9.17 


9.38 


9.58 


9.79 


10.00 


10.21 


10.42 


10.63 




re- 


11.46 


11.72 


11.98 


12.24 


12.50 


12.76 


12.02 


13.28 


1^^ 


% 


13.75 


14.06 


14.38 


14.69 


15.00 


15.31 


15.63 


15.94 




h 


16.04 


16.41 


16.77 


17.14 


17.50 


17.86 


18.23 


18.59 


y^ 


18.33 


18.75 


19.17 


19.58 


20.00 


20.42 


20.83 


21.25 


2-1 
11^ 


iG 


20.63 


21.09 


21.56 


22.03 


22.50 


22.97 


23.44 


23.91 




22.92 


23.44 


23.96 


24.48 


25.00 


25.52 


26.04 


26.56 


-Sgx 


\h 


25.21 


25.78 


26.35 


26.93 


27.50 


28.07 


28.65 


29.22 


-.•^ 


% 


27.50 


28.13 


28.75 


29.38 


30.00 


30.63 


3L25 


31.88 


1- 


i-I 


29.79 


30.47 


31.15 


31.82 


32.50 


33.18 


33.85 


34.53 


- <^ U 


% 


3208 


32.81 


33.54 


34.27 


35.00 


35.73 


36.46 


37.19 


in 


il 


34.38 


35.16 


35.94 


36.72 


37.50 


38.28 


39.06 


39.84 


1 


36.67 


37.50 38.33 


39.17 


40.00 


40.83 


41.67 


42.50 




Ire 


38.96 


39 84 


40. 73 


41.61 


42.50 


43.39 


44.27 


45.16 


<Li en lu 


1% 


41.25 


42.19 


43.13 


44.06 


45.00 


45.94 


46-88 


47.81 


sts- 


li\ 


43.54 


44.53 


45.52 


46.51 


47.50 


48.49 


49.48 


53.47 


ps 


1^ 


45.83 


46.88 


47.92 


48.96 


50.00 


51.04 


52.08 


50.13 


!| 


lA 


48.13 


49.22 


50.31 


51.41 


52.50 


53.59 


54.69 


55.78 


■lih 


ik 


50.42 


51.56 


52.71 


53.85 


55.00 


56. 15 


57.29 


58.44 


•o'Cq 


I/g 


52.71 


53.91 


55.10 


56.30 


57.50 


58.70 


59.90 


61.09 


■^^0 


IK 


55.00 


56.25 


57.50 


58.75 


60.00 


61.25 


62.50 


63.75 




ll^6 


57.29 


58.59 


59.90 


61.20 


62.50 


63.80 


65.10 


66.41 


H PI be 


1?^ 


59.58 


60.94 


62.29 


63 65 


65.00 


66.35 


67.71 


69.06 


IM 


61.88 


63.28 


64.69 


66 09 


67.50 ! 68.91 


70.31 


71.72 


^0^ 


1% 


64.17 


65.63 


67.08 


68.54 


70.00 i 7L46 1 72.92 

1 1 


74.38 




111 


66.46 


67.97 


69.48 


70.99 


72.50 


74.01 


75.52 


77.03 




1% 


68.75 


70.31 


71.88 


73.44 


75.00 


76.56 


78.13 


79.69 


tl^t 


IB 


71.04 


72.66 


74.27 


75.89 


77.50 


79.11 


80.73 


82.34 


cxil 


2 


73.33 


75.00 


76.67 


78.33 


80.00 


81.67 


83.33 


85.00 





If a rule be required to find the whole number of teeth a milling cutter 
should have, use this one : If the teeth are to be % inch apart on the cir- 
cumference, multiply the diameter of the cutter by 12 ; if f% apart, multiply 
by 10; if % apart, by 8; if /g, multiply b3' 7; and, if i/^-inch, multiply by 
6. This rule gives the space as stated quite as close to accuracy as is nec- 
essary, for this purpose and will save time if it is remembered. 



IRON. 



215 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 



For thicknesses from ig in. to 2 in. and Widths from 1 in. to 12% in. 



Thickness 
in inches. 


1" 


IV4'' 


iy2" 


i%" 


2^' 


2V4'^ 


2V2'' 


2%'' 


12" 




.063 
.125 
.188 
.250 


.078 
.156 
.234 
.313 


.094 
.188 
.281 
.375 


.109 
.219 
.328 
.438 


.125 
.250 
.375 
.500 


.141 
.281 
.422 
.563 


.156 
.313 
.469 
.625 


.172 
.344 
.516 

.688 


.750 
1.50 
2.25 
3.00 


■ i 


.313 
.375 
.438 
.500 


.391 
.469 
.547 
.625 


.469 
.563 
.656 
.750 


.547 
.656 
.766 

.875 


.625 
.750 
.875 
1.00 


.703 
.844 
.984 
1.13 


.781 
.938 
1.09 
1.25 


.859 
1.03 
1.20 
1.38 


3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 




.563 
.625 

.688 
.750 


.703 
.781 
.859 
.938 


.844 
.938 

1.03 

1.13 


.984 
1.09 
1.20 
1.31 


1.13 
1 25 
138 
1 50 


1.27 
1.41 
1.55 
1.69 


1.41 
1.56 
1.72 
1.88 


1.55 
1.72 
1.89 
2.06 


6.75 
7.50 
8.25 
9.00 


1 


.813 
.875 
.938 
1.00 


1.02 
1.09 
1.17 
1.25 


1.22 
1.31 
1.41 
1.50 


1.42 
1.53 
1.64 
1.75 


1.63 
1.75 

1.88 
2.00 


1.83 
1.97 
2.11 
2.25 


2.03 
2.19 
2.34 
2.50 


2.23 
2.41 
2.58 
2.75 


9.75 
10.50 
11.25 
12.00 


IJi 


1.06 
1.13 
1.19 
1.25 


1.33 
1.41 
1.48 
1.56 


1 59 
1.69 

1.78 
1.88 


1.86 
1.97 
2.08 
2.19 


2.13 
2.25 
2.38 
2.50 


2.39 
2.53 
2.67 
2.81 


2.66 
2.81 
2.97 
3.13 


2.92 
3.09 
3.27 
3.44 


12.75 
13.50 
14.25 
15.00 


1% 

lie 


1.31 
1.38 
1.44 
1.50 


1.64 
1.72 
1.80 
1.88 


1.97 
2.06 
2.16 
2.25 


2.30 
2.41 
2.52 
2.63 


2.63 
2.75 

2.88 
3.00 


2.95 
3.09 
3.23 
3.38 


3.28 
3.44 
3.59 
3.75 


3.61 

3.78 
3.95 
4.13 


15.75 
16.50 
17.25 
18.00 


li% 

1?^ 
IH 
1% 


1.56 
1.63 
1.69 
1.75 


1.95 
2.03 
2.11 
2.19 


2.34 
2.44 
2.53 
2.63 


2.73 

2.84 
2.95 
3.06 


3.13 
3.25 
3.38 
3.50 


3.52 
3.66 
3.80 
3.94 


3.91 
4.06 
4.22 
4.38 


4.30 
4.47 
4.64 

4.81 


18.75 
19.50 
20.25 
21.00 


1% 
111 

2 


1.81 

1.88 
1.94 
2.00 


2.27 
2.34 
2.42 
2.50 


2.72 
2.81 
2.91 
3.00 


3.17 
3.28 
3.39 
3.50 


3.63 
3.75 

3.88 
4.00 


4.08 
4.22 
4.36 
4.50 


4 53 
4 69 

4.84 
5.00 


4.98 
5.16 
5.33 
5.50 


21.75 
22.50 
23.25 
24.00 



It is not good practice to locate the pump between the boiler and 
heater, for, in this case, it has to work water at a temperature at, or near 
212 deg. Fahr., and it is apt to "kick" or stop working. This is caused 
by the water vaporizing in the pump barrel, which destro\^s the vacuum. 
The same is liable to occur if the pump has to lift hot water even ior a 
short distance, unless the pump is lower than the source of the hot water. 



216 



IRON. 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 
{Continued.) 



Thickness 
in Inches. 


3'' 


31/4'' 


31//' 


33/4'/ 


4'/ 


41/4" 


41/2'' 


43/4- 


12^' 


iV 


.188 


.203 


.219 


.234 


.250 


.266 


.281 


.297 


.750 


% 


.375 


.406 


.438 


.469 


.500 


.531 


.563 


.594 


1.50 


1% 


.563 


.609 


.656 


.703 


.750 


.797 


.844 


.891 


2.25 


H 


.750 


.813 


.875 


.938 


1.00 


1.06 


1.13 


1.19 


3.00 


1% 


.938 


1.02 


1.09 


1.17 


1.25 


1.33 


1.41 


1.48 


3.75 


% 


1.13 


1.22 


1.31 


1.41 


1.50 


1.59 


1.69 


1.78 


4.50 


7o 


1.31 


1.42 


1.53 


1.64 


1.75 


1.86 


1.97 


2.08 


5.25 


M 


1.50 


1.63 


1.75 


1.88 


2.00 


2.13 


2.25 


2.38 


6.00 


f%- 


1.69 


1.83 


1.97 


2.11 


2.25 


2.39 


2.53 


2.67 


6.75 


rs 


1.88 


2.03 


2.19 


2.34 


2.50 


2.66 


2.81 


2.97 


7.50 


Ih 


2 06 


2.23 


2.41 


2.58 


2.75 


2.92 


3.09 


3.27 


8.25 


% 


2.25 


2.44 


2.63 


2.81 


3.00 


3.19 


3.38 


3.56 


9.00 


if 


2.41 


2.64 


2.84 


3.05 


3.25 


3.45 


3.66 


3.86 


9.75 


% 


2 63 


2.84 


3-06 


3.28 


3.50 


3.72 


3.94 


4.16 


10.50 


fl 


2.81 


3.05 


3 28 


3.52 


3.75 


3.98 


4.22 


4.45 


11.25 


1 


3.00 


3 25 


3.50 


3.75 


4.00 


4.25 


4.50 


4.75 


12.00 


^h 


3.19 


3.45 


3.72 


3.98 


4.25 


4.52 


4.78 


5.05 


12.75 


IM 


3.38 


3 66 


3.94 


4.22 


4.50 


4.78 


5.06 


5.34 


13.50 


li\- 


3.56 


3.86 


4.16 


4.45 


4.75 


5.05 


5.34 


5.64 


14.25 


1J€ 


3.75 


4.06 


4.38 


4.69 


5.00 


5.31 


5.63 


5.94 


15.00 


1t6 


3.91 


4.27 


4.59 


4.92 


5.25 


5.58 


5.91 


6.23 


15.75 


ik 


4.13 


4.47 


4.81 


5.16 


5.50 


5.84 


6.19 


6.53 


16.50 


It's 


4.31 


4.67 


5.03 


5.39 


5.75 


6.11 


6.47 


6.83 


17.25 


1>^ 


4 50 


4 88 


5.25 


5.63 


6.00 


6.38 


6.75 


7.13 


18.00 


lr% 


4.69 


5.08 


5.47 


5.86 


6.25 


6.64 


7.03 


7.42 


18.75 


ik 


4.88 


5 28 


5.69 


6.09 


6.50 


6.91 


7.31 


7.72 


19.50 


11 G- 


5.06 


5 48 


5.91 


6.33 


6.75 


7.17 


7.59 


8.02 


20.25 


1% 


5.25 


5.69 


6.13 


6.56 


7.00 


7.44 


7.88 


8.31 


21.00 


111 


5.44 


5.89 


6 34 


6.80 


7.25 


7.70 


8.16 


8.61 


21.75 


\% 


5.63 


6.09 


6.56 


7.03 


7.50 


7.97 


8.44 


8.91 


22.50 


11:1 


5.81 


6.30 


6.78 


7.27 


7.75 


8.23 


8.72 


9.20 


23.25 


2 


6.00 


6 50 


7.00 


7.50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9.50 


24.00 



Velocity is speed or rate of motion, and is the second element in dynam- 



Time implies a continuous perception, recognized as duration, or thai 
measured by a clock, and is the third element in dynamics. 



IRON. 



217 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 
{Continued.) 



Thickness 
ill inches. 


5" 


5V/' 


5V2" 


5%" 


i 6" 


61/4^^ 


6V2" 


6%'^ 


12" 




.313 
.625 
.938 
1.25 


.328 
.656 
.984 
1.31 


.344 
.688 
1.03 
1.38 


.359 
.719 
1.08 
1.44 


1 .375 
' .750 
|1.13 
1.50 


.391 
.781 
1.17 
1.56 


.406 
.813 
1.22 
1.63 


.422 

.844 
1.27 
1.69 


.750 
1.50 
2.25 
3.00 


1% 


1.56 
1.88 
2.19 
2.50 


1.64 
1.97 
2.30 
2.63 


1.72 
2.06 
2.41 
2.75 


1.80 
2.16 
2.52 

2.88 


1.88 
2.25 
2.63 
3.00 


1.95 
2.34 
2.73 
3.13 


2.03 
2.44 
2.84 
3.25 


2.11 
2.53 
2.95 
3.38 


3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 




2.81 
3.13 
3.44 
3.75 


2.95 
3.28 
3.61 
3.94 


3.09 
3.44 
3.78 
4.13 


3.23 
3.59 
3.95 
4.31 


3.38 
3.75 
4.13 
4.50 


3.52 
3.91 
4.30 
4.69 


3.66 
4.06 
4.47 

4.88 


3.80 
4.22 
4.64 
5.06 


6.75 
7.50 
8.25 
9.00 




4.06 
4.38 
4.69 
5.00 


4.27 
4.59 
4.92 
5.25 


4.47 
4.81 
5.16 
5.50 


4.67 
5.03 
5.39 
5.75 


4.88 
5.25 
5.63 
6.00 


5.08 
5.47 
5.86 
6.25 


5.28 
5.69 
6.09 
6.50 


5.48 
5.91 
6.33 
6.75 


9.75 
10.50 
11.25 
12.00 




5.31 
5.63 
5.94 
6.25 


5.58 
5.91 
6.23 
6.56 


5.84 
6.19 
6.53 
6 88 


6.11 
6.47 
6.83 
7.19 


6.38 
6.75 
7.13 

7 50 


6.64 
7.03 

7.42 
7.81 


6.91 
7.31 

7.72 
8.13 


7.17 
7.59 

8.02 
8.44 


12.75 
13.50 
14.25 
15.00 


It 


6.56 
6.88 
7.19 
7.50 


6.89 
7.22 
7.55 

7.88 


7.22 
7.56 
7.91 
8.25 


7.55 
7.91 
8.27 
8.63 


7.88 
8.25 
8.63 
9.00 


8.20 
8.59 
8.98 
9.38 


8.53 
8.94 
9.34 
9.75 


8.86 

9.28 

9.70 

10.13 


15.75 
16.50 
17.25 
18.00 




7.81 
8.13 
8.44 
8.75 


8.20 
8.53 
8.86 
9.19 


8.59 
8.94 
9.28 
9.63 


8.98 

9.34 

9.70 

10.06 


9.38 

9.75 

10.13 

10.50 


9.77 
10.16 
10.55 
10.94 


10.16 
10.56 
10.97 
11.38 


10.55 
10.97 
11.39 
11.81 


18.75 
19.50 
20.25 
21.00 


HI 

2 


9.06 

9.38 

9.69 

10.00 


9.52 

9.84 

10.17 

10.50 


9.97 
10.31 
10.66 
11.00 


10.42 
10.78 
11.14 
11.50 


10.88 
11.25 
11.63 
12.00 


11.33 
11.72 
12.11 
12.50 


\1.78 
12.19 
12.59 
13.00 


12.23 
12.66 
13.08 
13.50 


21.75 
22.50 
23.25 
24.00 



The lead of a valve is the width of the steam induction port-opening 
at the instant the piston commences its stroke; and the valve lead, or 
amount of the port-opening, is made great enough to supph' full pressure 
of steam into the cylinder to start the piston before it commences its stroke. 
By increasing the lap and lead of the valve the steam is cut off quicker and 
the exhaust closed quicker, producing greater steam expansion and com- 
pression, which is found in locomotive and quick running engines to be the 
most efficient use of the steam. • 



218 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 



{Continued,} 



Thickness 
in Inches. 


r-I 


71/4'^ 


71/2" 


T^6 

'4 


.438 
.875 
1.31 
1.75 


.453 
.906 
1.36 
1.81 


.469 
.938 
1.41 

1.88 


h 


2.19 
2.63 
3.06 
3.50 


2.27 
2.72 
3.17 
3.63 


2.34 
2.81 
3.28 
3.75 




3.94 
4.38 
4.81 
5.25 


4.08 
4 53 
4.98 
5.44 


4.22 
4.69 
5.16 
5,63 


1 


5.69 
6.13 
6.56 

7.00 


5.89 
6.34 
6.80 
7.25 


6.09 
6.56 
7.03 
7.50 


1^ 


7.44 

7.88 
8.31 
8.75 


7.70 
8.16 
8.61 
9.06 


7.97 
8.44 
8.91 
9.38 


1)^ 


9.19 
9.63 

10.06 
10.50 


9.52 

9.97 

10.42 

10.88 


9.84 
10.31 
10.78 
11 25 


li% 

liH 

1% 


10.94 
11.38 
11.81 
12.25 


11.33 
11.78 
12.23 
12.69 


11.72 
12.19 
12.66 
13.13 


1% 

2 


12.69 
13.13 
13.56 
14.00 


13.14 
13.59 
14.05 
14.50 


13.59 
14.06 
14.53 
15.00 



73/^ 



.484 
.969 
1.45 
1.94 

2.42 
2.91 
3 39 

3.88 

4.36 
4.84 
5.33 
5.81 

6.30 

6.78 
7.27 
7.75 

8.23 
8.72 
9.20 
9.69 



8'^ 



12.11 
12.59 
13.08 
13.56 

14.05 
14.53 
15.02 
15.50 



.500 
1.00 
1.50 
2.00 

2.50 
3.00 
3.50 
4 00 

4 50 
5.00 
5.50 
6.00 

6.50 

7.00 
7.50 
8.00 

8.50 

9 00 

9.50 

10.00 



10.17 10.50 
10.66 11.00 
11.14 111.50 
11.63 12.00 



12.50 
13.00 
13.50 
14.00 

14.50 
15.00 
15.50 
16 00 



81/4 



.516 
1.03 
L55 
2.06 

2.58 
3.09 
3.61 
4.13 

4.64 
5.16 
5.67 
6.19 

6.70 
7.22 
7.73 
8.25 

8.77 

9.28 

9.80 

10.31 

10,83 
11.34 
11.86 
12.38 

12.89 
13.41 
13.92 
14.44 

14.95 
15.47 
15.98 
16.50 



8y2 



8%' 



12'^ 



.531 
1.06 
1.59 
2.13 

2.66 
3.19 
3.72 
4.25 

4.78 
5.31 
5.84 
6.38 

6.91 
7.44 
7.97 
8.50 

9.03 

9.56 

10.09 

10.63 

11.16 
11.69 
12.22 
12.75 

13.28 
13.81 
14.34 

14.88 

15.41 
15.94 
16.47 



.547 
1.09 
1.64 
2.19 

2.73 
3.28 
3.83 
4.38 

4.92 
5.47 
6.02 
6 56 

7.11 
7-66 
8.20 
8.75 

9.30 

9.84 
10.39 
10.94 

11.48 
12.03 
12.58 
13.13 

13.67 
14.22 
14.77 
15.31 

15.86 
16.41 
16.95 



17.00 1 17.50 



.750 
1.50 
2.25 
3.00 

3.75 

4.50 
5.25 
6.00 

6.75 
7.50 
8.25 
9.00 

9.75 
10.50 
11.25 
12.00 

12.75 
13.50 
14.25 
15.00 

15.75 
16.50 
17.25 
18.00 

18.75 
19.50 
20.25 
21.00 

21.75 
22.50 
23.25 
24.00 



The pressure should always come against the bottom of a globe valve 
pressing the valve against the screw. The reasons are that when the valve 
is closed, the steam does not exert a pressure upon the packing, or tend to 
burn it out. It may also be renewed with a pressure upon the valve. 
Steam will also pass more freely through valve in enteiing from the under 
gide, besides the valve is more safe, and will wear much longer. 



IRON. 



219 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 

{Continued.) 



Thickness 
in Inches. 


9" 


9U" 


9V2^^ 


9W 


10'' 


101/4^' 


IOI/2''' 


103/4^^ 


12^' 


Tg 


.563 


.578 


.594 


.609 


.625 


.641 


.656 


.672 


.75 


^ 


1.13 


1.16 


1.19 


1.22 


1.25 


1.28 


1.31 


1.34 


1 50 


1% 


1.69 


1.73 


1.78 


1.83 


1.88 


1.92 


1.97 


2.02 


2.25 


k 


2.25 


2.31 


2.38 


2.44 


2.50 


2.56 


2.63 


2.69 


3.00 


i% 


2.81 


2.89 


2.97 


3.05 


3.13 


3.20 


3.28 


3.36 


3.75 


% 


3.38 


3.47 


3.56 


3.66 


3.75 


3.84 


3.94 


4.03 


4.50 


i\ 


3.94 


4.05 


4.16 


4.27 


4.38 


4.48 


4.59 


4.70 


5.25 


H 


4.50 


4.63 


4.75 


4.88 


5.00 


5.13 


5.25 


5.38 


6.00 


h 


5.06 


5.20 


5.34 


5.48 


5.63 


5.77 


5.91 


6.05 


6.75 


% 


5.63 


5.78 


5.94 


6.09 


6.25 


6.41 


6.56 


6.72 


7.50 


n 


6.19 


6.36 


6.53 


6.70 


6.88 


7.05 


7.22 


7.39 


8.25 


% 


6.75 


6.94 


7.13 


7.31 


7.50 


7.69 


7.88 


8.06 


9.00 


\i 


7.31 


7.52 


7.72 


7.92 


8.13 


; 8.33 


8.53 


8.73 


9.75 


% 


7.88 


8.09 


8.31 


8.53 


8.75 


8.97 


9.19 


9.41 


10.50 


li 


8.44 


8.67 


8.91 9.14 


9.38 


9.61 


9.84 


10.08 


11.25 


1 


9.00 


9.25 


9.50 


9.75 


10.00 


10.25 


10.50 


10.75 


12.00 


IrV 


9.56 


9.83 


10.09 


10.36 


10.63 


10 89 


11.16 


11.42 


12.75 


IH 


10.13 


10.41 


10.69 


10.97 


11.25 


11-53 


11.81 


12.09 


13.50 


If'c 


10.69 


10.98 


11.28 


11.58 


11.88 


12.17 


12.47 


12.77 


14.25 


IM 


11.25 


11.56 


11.88 


12.19 


12.50 


12.81 


13.13 


13.44 


15.00 


ll% 


11.81 


12.14 


12.47 


12.80 


13.13 


13.45 


13.78 


14.11 


15.75 


1% 


12.38 


12.72 


13.06 


13.41 


13.75 


14.09 


14-44 


14.78 


16.50 


ll\ 


12.94 


13.30 


13.66 


14.02 


14.38 


14.73 


15.09 


15.45 


17.25 


IK 


13.50 


13.88 


14.25 


14.63 


15.00 


15-38 


15.75 


16.13 


18.00 


li'e 


14.06 


14.43 


14.84 


15.23 


15.63 


16.02 


16,41 


16.80 


18.75 


1^ 


14.63 


15.03 


15.44 


15.84 


16.25 


16.66 


17.06 


17.47 


19.50 


iH 


15.19 


15.61 


16.03 


16.45 


16.88 


17.30 


17.72 


18.14 


20.25 


1^ 


15.75 


16.19 


16.63 


17.06 


17.50 


17.94 


18.38 


18.81 


21.00 


HI 


16.31 


16.77 


17.22 


17.67 


18.13 


18.58 


19.03 


19.48 


21.75 


1% 


16.88 


17.34 


17.81 


18.28 


18.75 


19.22 


19.69 


20.16 


22 50 


111 


17.44 


17.92 


18.41 


18.89 


19.38 


19.86 


20.34 


20.83 


23.25 


2 


18.00 


118.50 


19.00 


19.50 


20.00 


20.50 


21.00 


21.50 


24.00 



Iridium is many times harder than the hardest steel, and will not rust 
or corrode in any atmosphere or fluid. It defies the file and resists all acids. 
The only means of cutting iridium is by friction with a soft metal wheel 
charoed with diamond dust or fine corundum. 



220 



AREAS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON. 



{Continued.} 



Thickness 
in Inches. 


11^' 


\^X" 


\\y%' 


\v%" 


12'' 


12^" 


12>i'^ 


12%" 


<B5 O 

.ii lO O 


h 


.688 


.703 


.719 


.734 


.750 


.766 


.781 


.797 


lot 


H 


1.38 


1.41 


1.44 


1.47 


1.50 


L53 


1 .56 


1.59 


re- 


2.06 


2.11 


2.16 


2.20 


2.25 


2 30 


2.34 


2.39 


^^S 


X 


2.75 


2.81 


2.88 


2.94 


3.00 


3.06 


3.13 


3.19 


•9 '-'^ 

I"" 


h 


3.44 


3.52 


3.59 


3.67 


3.75 


3.83 


3.91 


3.98 




% 


4.13 


4.22 


4.31 


4.41 


4.50 


4.59 


4.69 


4.78 


1s^x 


h 


4.81 


4.92 


5.03 


5.14 


5.25 


5.36 


5.47 


5.58 


^CCH 


K 


5.50 


5.63 


5.75 


5.88 


6.00 


6.13 


6.25 


6.38 




h 


6.19 


6.33 


6.47 


6.61 


6.75 


6.89 


7.03 


7.17 


.•ti«,«! 


% 


6.88 


7.03 


7.19 


7.34 


7.50 


7.66 


7.81 


7.97 


•Shx 


\k 


7.26 


7.73 


7.91 


8.08 


8.25 


8.42 


8.59 


8.77 


5,-^ 


% 


8.55 


8.44 


8.63 


8.81 


9.00 


9.19 


9.38 


9.56 




fl 


8 94 


9.14 


9.34 


9.55 


9.75 


9.95 


10.16 


10.36 




7/ 


9.63 


9.84 


10.06 


10.28 


10.50 


10.72 


10.94 


11.16 


t£S 


tI 


10.31 


1055 


10.78 


11.02 


11.25 


11.48 


11.72 


11.95 


St; 


1 


11.00 


11.25 |11.50 


11.75 


12.00 


12.25 


12.50 


12.75 


C fe es 


If'e 


11.69 


11.95 


12.22 


12.48 


12.75 


13.02 


13.28 


13.55 


1l^ 


IM 


12.38 


12,66 


12.94 


13.22 


13.50 


13.78 


14.06 


14.34 


i^- 


^h 


13.06 


13.36 


13.66 


13.95 


14.25 


14.55 


14.84 


15.14 


^-^.s 


1¥ 


13.75 


14.06 


14.38 


14.69 


15.00 


15.31 


15.63 


15.94 


H^ 

!"^^ 


li% 


14.44 


14.77 


15.09 


15.42 


15.75 


16.08 


16.41 


16.73 


i- 93 jj 


\% 


15.13 


15.47 


15.81 


16.16 


16.50 


16.84 


17.19 


17.53 


1^^ 


If 6 


15.81 


16.17 


16.53 


16.89 


17.25 


17.61 


17.97 


18.33 


Vi 
M f^ 2 li 


IK 


16.50 


16.88 


17.25 


17-63 


18.00 


18.38 


18.75 


19.13 


^h 


17.19 


17.58 


17.97 


18.36 


18.75 


19.14 


19.53 


19.92 


H 03 l* o 


\% 


17.88 


18.28 


18.69 


19.09 


19.50 


19.91 


20.31 


20.72 


•2°a;Ji 


iH 


18.56 


18.98 


19.41 


19.83 


20.25 


20.67 


21.09 


21.52 


«c5g 


1% 


19.25 


19.69 


20.13 


20.56 


21.00 


21.44 


21.88 


22.31 




ItI 


19.94 


20.39 


20.84 


21.30 


•21.75 


22.20 


22.66 


23.11 




1% 


20.63 


21.09 


21.56 


22.03 


22.50 


22.97 


23.44 


23.91 




Irl 


21.31 


21.80 


22.28 


22.57 


23.25 


23.73 


24.22 


24 70 


cXil 


2 


22.00 


22.50 


23.00 1 23.50 


24.00 


24.50 


25.00 


25 50 





The best way to enlarge a shaft, when the bearing is close to the end, is 
to drill a hole in the end of the shaft about one-third as large as the shaft, 
fill the hole with lard oil to within half an inch of the end, then plug it tight 
with a steel plug. Heat it slowly until it gets red hot — then let it cool 
slowly, then dress the bearing down to fit. 



IRON. 



221 



WEIGHT AND AREAS OF SQUARE AND ROUND BARS 

OF WROUGHT IRON, AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF 

ROUND BARS. 

ONE CUBIC FOOT WEIGHING 480 LBS. 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Area of 


Cir. of 


orDiam. 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Round bar 


in inches. 


one ft. long 


one ft. long. 


in sq. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


in inches. 





.013 


.010 


.0039 


.0031 


. .1963 


% 


.052 


.041 


.0156 


.0123 


.3927 


h 


.117 


.092 


.0352 


.0276 


.5890 


% 


.208 


.164 


.0625 


.0491 


.7854- 


h 


.326 


.256 


.0977 


.0767 


.9817 


% 


.469 


.368 


.1406 


.1104 


1.1781 


h 


.638 


.501 


.1914 


.1503 


1.3744 


M 


.833 


.654 


.2500 


.1963 


1.5708 


i\ 


1.055 


.828 


.3164 


.2485 


1.7671 


% 


1.302 


1.023 


.3906 


.3068 


1.9635 


{h 


1.576 


1.237 


.4727 


.3712 


2.1598 


% 


1.875 


1.473 


.5625 


.4418 


2.3562 


M 


2.201 


1.728 


.6602 


.5185 


2.5525 


% 


2.552 


2.004 


.7656 


.6013 


2.7489 


ti 


2.930 


2.301 


.8789 


.6903 


2.9452 


1 


3.333 


2.618 


1.0000 


,7854 


3.1416 


1*6 


3.763 


2.955 


1.1289 


.8866 


3.3379 


^ 


4.219 


3.313 


1.2656 


.9940 


3.5343 


h 


4.701 


3.692 


1.4102 


1.1075 


3.7306 


¥ 


5.208 


4.091 


1.5625 


1.2272 


3.9270 


1^6 


5.742 


4.510 


1.7227 


1.3530 


4.1233 


% 


6.302 


4.950 


1.8906 


1.4849 


4.3197 


/g 


6.888 


5.410 


2.0664 


1.6230 


4.5160 


3^ 


7.500 


5.890 


2.2500 


1.7671 


4.7124 


f^6 


8.138 


6.392 


2.4414 


1.9175 


4.9087 


% 


8.802 


6.913 


2.6406 


2.0739 


5.1051 


H 


9.492 


7.455 


2.8477 


2.2365 


5.3014 


% 


10.21 


8.018 


3.0625 


2.4053 


5.4978 


M 


10 95 


8.601 


3.2852 


2.5802 


5.6941 


% 


11 72 


9.204 


3.5156 


2.7612 


5.8905 


\% 


12.51 


9.828 


3.7539 


2.9483 


6.0868 



Work is the product obtained by multiplxMUg together the three simple 
elements, force, velocity and time. 



222 



IRON. 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 
(Continued.) 



Thickness 
or Diam. 
in inches. 


Weight of 

Sqr. Bar 

one ft.long 


Weight of 
Round bar 
one ft.long 


Area ol 
Square Bar 
in sq. inches. 


Area of 

Round Bar 

in sq. inches. 


Circumference 

of Round Bar 

in inches. 


2 

i^6 


13.33 
14.18 
15.05 
15.95 


10.47 
11.14 
11.82 
12.53 


4.0000 
4.2539 
4.5156 
4.7852 


3.1416 
3.3410 
3.5466 
3.7583 


6.2832 
6.4795 
6.6759 
6.8722 




16.88 
17.83 
18.80 
19.80 


13.25 
14.00 
14.77 
15.55 


5.0625 
5.3477 
5.6406 
5.9414 


3.9761 
4.2000 
4.4301 
4.6664 


7.0686 
7-2649 
7.4613 
7.6576 


% 


20.83 
21.89 
22.97 

24.08 


16.36 
17.19 

18.04 
18.91 


6.2500 
6.5664 
6.8906 
7.2227 


4.9087 
5.1572 
5.4119 
5.6727 


7. 8540 
8.0503 
8.2467 
8.4430 


II 


25.21 
26.37 
27.55 
28.76 


19.80 
20.71 
21.64 
22.59 


7.5625 
7.9102 
8.2656 
8.6289 


5.9396 
6.2126 
6.4918 
6.7771 


8.6394 

8.8357 
9.0321 
9.2284 


3 

h 


30.00 
31.26 
32.55 
33.87 


23.56 
24.55 
25.57 
26.60 


9.0000 
9.3789 
9.7656 
10.160 


7.0686 
7.3662 
7.6699 
7.9798 


9.4248 
9.6211 
9.8175 
10.014 




35.21 
36.58 
37.97 
39.39 


27.65 
28.73 
29.82 
30.94 


10.563 
10.973 
11.391 
11.816 


8.2958 
8.6179 
8.9462 
9.2806 


10.210 
10.407 
10.603 
10.799 




40.83 
42.30 
43.80 
45.33 


32.07 
33.23 
34.40 
35.60 


12.250 
12.691 
13.141 
13.598 


9.6211 
9.9678 
10.321 
10.680 


10.996 
11.192 
11.388 
11.585 


% 
if 

Vs 

if 


46.88 
48.45 
50.05 
51.68 


36.82 
38.05 
39.31 
40.59 


14.063 
14.535 
15.016 
15.504 


11.045 
11.416 
11.793 
12.177 


11.781 
11.977 
12.174 
12.370 



Dynamics is the science of that branch of mechanics which treats of 
force in motion, power and work. It comprehends the action of all kinds 
of machinery, manual and animal labor, in the transformation cf 2)hys- 
ical work. 



IRON. 



223 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

{Continued. ) 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Area of 


Cir. of 


orDiam. 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Round Bar 


in inches. 


one ft. long 


one ft. long. 


in sq. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


in inches. 


4 


53.3v3 


41.89 


16.000 


12.566 


12.566 


iV 


55.01 


43.21 


16.504 


12.962 


12.763 


1 6 


56.72 


44.55 


17.016 


13.364 


12.959 


r\ 


58.45 


45.91 


17.535 


13.772 


13.155 


K 


60.21 


47.29 


18.063 


14.186 


13.352 


1^6 


61.99 


48 69 


18.598 


14.607 


13.548 


% 


63.80 


50.11 


19.141 


15.033 


13.744 


h 


65.64 


51.55 


19.691 


15.466 


13.941 


H 


67.50 


53.01 


20.250 


15.904 


14.137 


i% 


69.39 


54.50 


20.816 


16.349 


14.334 


% 


71.30 


56.00 


21.391 


16.800 


14.530 


n 


73.24 


57.52 


21.973 


17.257 


14.726 


% 


75.21 


59.07 


22.563 


17.721 


14.923 


13 


77.20 


60.63 


23.160 


18.190 


15.119 


% 


79.22 


62.22 


23.766 


18.665 


15.315 


\% 


81.26 


63.82 


24.379 


19.147 


15.512 


5 


■83.33 


65.45 


25.000 


19.635 


15.708 


A- 


85.43 


67.10 


25.629 


20.129 


15.904 


M 


87.55 


68.76 


26.266 


20.629 


16.101 


f^6 


89.70 


70.45 


26.910 


21.135 


16.297 


% 


91.88 


72.16 


27.563 


21.648 


16.493 


1% 


94.08 


73.89 


28.223 


22.166 


16.690 


% 


96.30 


75.64 


28.891 


22.691 


16.886 


/e 


98.55 


77.40 


29.566 


23.221 


17.082 


3^ 


100.8 


79.19 


30.250 


23.758 


17.279 


1^6 


103.1 


81.00 


30.941 


24.301 


17.475 


% 


105.5 


82.83 


31.641 


24.850 


17.671 


1-i 


107.8 


84.69 


32.348 


25.406 


17.868 


% 


110.2 


86.56 


33.063 


25.967 


18.064 


M 


112.6 


88.45 


33.785 


26.535 


18.251 


% 


115.1 


90.36 


34.516 


27.109 


18.457 


H 


117.5 


92.29 


35.254 


27.688 


18.653 



Function is any compound result or product of two or more different 
elements. A function is resolved by dividing it with one or more of its 
elements. 



224 



IRON. 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(Continued. ) 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Area of 


Circumference 


or Diam. 


Sqr. Bar 


RoundBar 


Square Bar 


Round Bar 


of Round Bar 


in inches. 


one ft.long 


oneft.long 


in sq. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


in inches. 


6 


120.0 


94.25 


36.000 


28.274 


18.850 


i'e- 


122.5 


96.22 


36.754 


28.866 


19.046 


Ys 


125.1 


98.22 


37.516 


29.465 


19.242 


x% 


127.6 


100.2 


38.285 


30.069 


19.439 


M 


130.2 


102.3 


39.063 


30.680 


19.635 


h 


132.8 


104.3 


39.848 


31.296 


19.831 


% 


135.5 


106.4 


40.641 


31.919 


20.028 


h 


138 1 


108.5 


41,441 


32.548 


20.224 


y^ 


140.8 


110.6 


42.250 


33.183 


20.420 


h 


143.6 


112.7 


43.066 


33.824 


20.617 


% 


146.3 


114.9 


43.891 


34.472 


20.813 


\h 


149.1 


117.1 


44.723 


35.125 


21.009 


% 


151.9 


119.3 


45.563 


35.785 


21.206 


^1 


154.7 


121.5 


46.410 


36. 450 


21.402 


% 


157.6 


123.7 


47.266 


37.122 


21.598 


• M 


160.4 


126.0 


48.129 


37.800 


21.795 


7 


163.3 


128.3 


49.000 


38.485 


21.991 


1^6 


166.3 


130.6 


49.879 


39.175 


22.187 


% 


169.2 


132.9 


50.766 


39.871 


22.384 


h 


172.2 


135.2 


51.660 


40.574 


22.580 


M 


175.2 


137.6 


52.563 


41.282 


22.777 


1% 


178.2 


140.0 


53.473 


41.997 


22.973 




181.3 


142.4 


54.391 


42.718 


23.169 


h 


184.4 


144.8 


55.316 


43.445 


23.366 


y^ 


187.5 


147.3 


56.250 


44.179 


23.562 


1% 


190.6 


149.7 


57.191 


44.918 


23.758 


% 


193.8 


152.2 


58.141 


45.664 


23.955 


\l 


197.0 


154.7 


59.098 


46.415 


24.151 


% 


200.2 


157.2 


60.063 


47.173 


24.347 


\% 


203.5 


159.8 


61.035 


47.937 


24.544 


% 


206.7 


162.4 


62.016 


48.707 


24.740 


if 


210.0 


164.9 


63.004 


49.483 


24 936 



Element is an essential principle which cannot be resolved into two or 
more different principles. The simple physical elements of dynamics are 
force, velocity and time, and the functions of these elements are power, 
space and work. 



IRON. 



225 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

{Continued.) 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Area of 


Cir. of 


or Diam. 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Sq. Bar 


Round Bar 


Round Bar 


in inches. 


one ft. long 


one ft. long. 


in sq. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


in inches. 


8 


213.3 


167.6 


64.000 


50.265 


25.133 


I'e 


216.7 


170.2 


65.004 


51.054 


25.329 


Vs 


220.1 


172.8 


66.016 


51.849 


25.525 


^% 


223.5 


175.5 


67.035 


52.649 


25.722 


H 


226.9 


178.2 


68.063 


53.456 


25.918 


h 


230.3 


180.9 


69.098 


54.269 


26.114 


% 


233.8 


183.6 


70.141 


55.088 


26.311 


^ 


237.3 


186.4 


71.191 


55.914 


26.507 


K 


240.8 


189.2 


72.250 


56.745 


26.704 


i% 


244.4 


191.9 


73.316 


57.583 


26.900 


% 


248.0 


194.8 


74.391 


58.426 


27.096 


n 


251.6 


197.6 


75.473 


59.276 


2^.293 


H 


255.2 


200.4 


76.563 


60 132 


27.489 


13 
1 6 


258.9 


203.3 


77.660 


60 994 


27.685 


Vs 


262.6 


206.2 


78.766 


61.862 


27.882 


15 
16 


266.3 


209.1 


79.879 


62.737 


28.078 


9 


270.0 


212.1 


81.000 


63.617 


28. 274 


1^6 


273.8 


215.0 


82.129 


64.504 


28.471 


}i 


277.6 


218.0 


83.266 


65.397 


28.667 


3 
16 


281.4 


221.0 


84.410 


66.296 


28.863 


H 


285.2 


224.0 


85.563 


67.201 


29.060 


i% 


289.1 


227.0 


86.723 


68.112 


29.256 


% 


293.0 


230.1 


87.891 


69.029 


29.452 


h 


296.9 


233.2 


89.066 


69.953 


29.649 


K 


300.8 


236.3 


90.250 


70.882 


29.845 


1^6 


304.8 


239.4 


91.441 


71.818 


30.04.1 


% 


308.8 


242.5 


92.641 


72.760 


30.238 


B 


312.8 


245.7 


93.848 


73.708 


30.434 


% 


316.9 


248.9 


95.063 


74.662 


30.631 


13 
6 


321.0 


252.1 


96. 285 


75.622 


30.827 


Vs 


325.1 


255.3 


97.516 


76. 589 


31.023 


15 
1 6 


329.2 


258.5 


98.754 


77.561 


31.220 



Force is any action which can be expressed simply by weight, and which 
can be realized only by an equal amount of reaction, and is the first element 
in dynamics. 
16 



226 



IRON. 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

{Continued.) 



Thickness 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Area of 


Cir. of 


or Diam. 


Sqr. Bar 


Round Bar 


Sq. Bar 


Round Bar 


Round Bar 


in inches. 


one ft. long 


one ft. long. 


in sq. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


in inches. 


10 


333.3 


261.8 


100.00 


78.540 


31.416 


1^ 


337.5 


265.1 


101.25 


79.525 


31.612 


M 


341.7 


268.4 


102.52 


80.516 


31.809 


1% 


346.0 


271.7 


103.79 


81.513 


32.005 


X 


350.2 


275.1 


105.06 


82.516 


32.201 


1% 


354.5 


278.4 


106.35 


83.525 


32.398 


% 


358.8 


281.8 


107.64 


84.541 


32.594 


h 


363.1 


285.2 


108.94 


85.562 


32.790 


K 


367.5 


288.6 


110.25 


86.590 


32. 987 


h 


371.9 


292.1 


111.57 


87.624 


33.183 


% 


376.3 


295.5 


112.89 


88.664 


33.379 


\l 


380.7 


299.0 


114.22 


89.710 


33.576 


% 


385.2 


302.5 


115.56 


90.763 


33.772 


1.3 


389.7 


306.1 


116.91 


91.821 


33.968 


% 


394.2 


309.6 


118.27 


92.886 


34.165 


\% 


398.8 


313.2 


119.63 


93.956 


34.361 


11 


403.3 


316.8 


121.00 


95. 033 


34.558 


tV 


407.9 


320.4 


122.38 


96.116 


34.754 


% 


412.6 


324.0 


123.77 


97.205 


34.950 


h 


417.2 


327.7 


125.16 


98.301 


35.147 


"4. 


421.9 


331.3 


126.56 


99.402 


35.343 


h 


426.6 


335.0 


127.97 


100.51 


35.539 


% 


431.3 


338.7 


129.39 


101.62 


35.736 


h 


436.1 


342.5 


130.82 


102.74 


35.932 


K 


440.8 


346.2 


132.25 


103.87 


36.128 


1% 


445.6 


350.0 


133.69 


105.00 


36.325 


% 


450.5 


353.8 


135.14 


106.14 


36.521 


ii 


455.3 


357.6 


136.60 


107.28 


36.717 


% 


460.2 


361.4 


138.06 


108.43 


36.914 


1-1 


465.1 


365.3 


139.54 


109.59 


37.110 


% 


470.1 


369.2 


141.02 


110.75 


37.306 


n 


475.0 


373.1 


142.50 


111.92 


37.503 















The surface of a journal may be increased bj- adding to its length with- 
out increasing the friction or the power necessary to overcome it. Nor, 
will the friction be increased by adding to the diameter of a journal, but 
the power necessary to overcome this friction will certainly be increased. 



227 



Angle Irons. 

Weights per Foot corresponding to thicknesses varying by i^g' 
Foot weighing 480 lbs. 



one Cubic 



SIZE 
INCHES. 


Vs^' h" 


1/4^^ 


5 // 

16 


W 


h'' 


V2'' 


N' 


W' 


W 


3/4^/ 


W' 


Vs'' 


Equal Legs 
6X6 
4 X 4 
3V2 X 3y2 
31/4 X 3V4 

3 X 3 
2% X 23/4 
2V2 X 21/2 
2V4 X2 V4 

2X2 

1% X 13/4 

iy2 X 1V2 

IV4. X IV4. 

IVs X 1V8 
1 X 1 












19.2 
12.9 
11.2 
10.4 

9.7 

8.8 
8.0 
7.3 


21.7 
14.5 
12.7 
11.7 

10.9 


24.2 
16.2 
14.1 
13.1 

12.2 


26.7 
17.9 


29.2 
19 5 


31.7 


34.2 


' "\ 






9.5 
8.3 
7.7 

7.2 
6.5 
5.9 
5.4 

4.8 
4.3 
3.6 


11.2 
9.7 
9.0 

8.4 
7.7 
7.0 
6.4 

5.6 
5.0 




1 






15.6J17.0 
14 4! 15. 8 






'*' 1 














5.9 
5.4 
4.9 
4.5 

4.0 
3.5 
3.0 








1 












1 1 














1 


3.5 

3-1 

2.8 
2.4 
2.0 

1-8 
1 6 






















2.1 

1.8 

1.0 1.5 

0.9 1.4 
0.8 1.2 
0.6 0.9 


































































1 


















3/4 X % 




1 


















1 1 


















Unequal Legs 
6 X 4 












13.9 
12.7 
11.9 
11.2 

10.5 
9.7 
9.0 

7.4 

7.8 
7.1 
6.4 


16.0 
14.5 
13.7 
12.9 

12.0 

11.2 

10.4 

8.5 

9.0 
8.1 
7.3 


18.1 
16.4 
15.5 
14.5 

13.6 
12.7 
11.7 


20.2 
18.3 
17.2 
16.2 

15,2 
14.1 
13.1 


22.3 
20.2 
19.0 
17.9 

16.7 
15.6 
14.4 


24.4 
22.0 
20.8 
19.5 

18.3 
17.0 
15.8 


26.4 




5 X 4 










10.8 

10.2 

9.5 

8.9 
8.3 
7.7 
6.4 

6.7 
6.0 
5.4 
4.0 




5 X 3V2 














5 X 3 














4 X 3V2 
4 X 3 


























3y2 X 3 
314 X 2 


















4.2 

4.4 
4.0 
3.5 
2.6 


5.3 

5.5 
5.0 
4.5 
3.3 






3 X 2V2 


















3 X 2 


















2y2 X 2 


















2 X 13/8 
























1 

















Power {^ the product of force and velocity ; that is to say, a force mul- 
tiplied by the velocity" with which it is acting, is the power in operation. 
Power is the differential of work or any action which produces work, 
"whether mental or physical. Power multiplied b^-^ the time of action is 
work — work divided by time is power. 



228 



IRON. 



T Irons. 



^ «5 




Z c« 


^ « 




25 05 


tt w 




° s 


« w 




w 


-9j 




"5 M 


< 




n 

w 5 


_} 


H . 


!^ 


^ 


^1 


^ S 


^§ 


^.i 


fe § 


K H 


o« 


,r W 


Ci 


^ D 


-a 





oj s 




g^ 


< 




|2 




5X3 


13 


3.90 


3 X 4 


i2y4 


3.68 


5 X 21/2 


IOV4. 


3.08 


3 X 3y2 


11% 


3.53 


4y2 X 31/2 


15 


4.50 


3X3 


7.6 


2.28 


4X5 


14 


4.20 


3 X 2y2 


6 


1.80 


4 X 41/2 


I3y2 


4.05 


2V2 X 3 


6y2 


1.95 


4 X 4 


12 


3.60 


2y2 X 2% 


6.6 


1.98 


4X3 


9% 


2.78 


2y2 X 2y2 


5.4 


1.62 


4 X 2y2 


7V2 


2.25 


2y2 X 114 


3 


0.90 


4X2 


6^2 


1.95 








3y2 X 4 


1114 


3.38 








3V2 X 3y2 


10 


3.00 








3y2 X 3 


9y4 


2.78 









Star Irons. 







THICKNESS IN 




SIZE. INCHES. 


WEIGHT PER FT. 


INCHES AT END AND 


AREA. 




LBS. 


ROOT OF FLANGE. 


SQUARE INCH. 


4X4 


12 


% - 1% 


3.60 


3y2 X 3V2 


9y2 


%-y^ 


2.85 


3X3 


714 


1% - if 


2.18 


2y2 X 2y2 


5^2 




1.65 


2x2 


334 


J€ -if 


1.13 


iy2 X iy2 


2.3 


i% - 1% 


0.69 



Weight of Tire Iron Per Set of 54 Feet. 



%\* 


Ix J€ 
45 


1 

1 X /e i 1 X % 

56 68 


lysxii 

50 


IVs X r^e 
63 


iy8x3/8 

75 


IVsx^ 
83 


lygxK 
101 


lJ€x)^ 
56 


l^Xi^- 

70 


13^x3/8 

85 


l^x/e 
99 


114 xy2 

113 


13/8 X 3/8 

93 


i^xys 

124 


IK X 3/8 

;ioi 


IKxK 
135 


m X % 

169 


1% X y2 

148 


1% X % 

183 


1% X K 
158 


134 X % 
197 


134x3/4 

236 


2xK 
180 


2x% 
225 


2x% 
270 













229 



Wagon Box Iron. 



WIDTH. 


GAUGE. 


WEIGHT PER FOOT. 


NO. OF FEET IN TON 
OF 2,000 LBS. 


% 
% 
% 

% 
1 


No. 10 
No. 11 
No. 12 
No, 10 
No. 11 
No. 10 


.295 
.264 
.233 
.350 
.309 
.400 


6,770 
7,575 
8,580 
5,710 
6,470 
5,000 



Half Round, Oval and Half Oval Iron. 



SIZE. HALF 


SIZE — OVAL. 


WEIGHT 


SIZE— HALF 


WEIGHT PER 


ROUND. 




PER FOOT. 


OVAL. 


FOOT. 


% 


% X ^ 


.186 


% X3\ 


.093 


i^6 


/eX/, 


.253 


/e X 6^ 


.127 


V2 


1/2 X 1/4 


.331 


V2 X 1/8 


.166 


% 


% X ,% 


.517 


% X 3\ 


.259 


% 


% X 3/8 


.744 


% X j3e 


.372 


Vs 


% A' j^e 


1.013 


% X /^ 


.507 


1 


1 xy2 


1.323 


1 xl/4 


.662 


1 Vs 


11/8 Xi^e 


1.624 


11/8 X 3^2 


.812 


1 1/4 


ll/i X % 


2.067 


11/4 X i^e 


1.034 


1 1/2 


11/2 X % 


2.976 


11/2 X 3/8 


1.488 



All the above are estimated weights only. 

Hoop and Scroll Iron. Number of Feet in a Bundle of Fifty - 

six Pounds. 



HOOP IRON. 


SCROLL IRON. 


Size. 




Size. 






Feet in 
Bundle. 






Feet in 










Bundles. 


Width. 


Thick. 




Width. 


Thick. 




% inches. 


No. 21 


815 


l^ inch. 


No. 10 


240 


34 " 1 " 20 


630 


% 




" 16 


430 


Vs " 


" 19 


450 


% 




•' 14 


347 


1 


•• 18 


360 


% 


' 


. " 10 


190 


11/8 " 


u ^^ 


278 


% 


( 


" 16 


360 


11/4 " 


" 16 


217 


% 


« 


" 14 


290 


11/2 " 


•' 15 


160 


% 


i 


" 12 


208 


13/4 " 


" 15 


139 ! 


% 


' 


" 10 


160 


2 


" 14 


110 


I 


' 


" 16 
" 14 
" 12 
'• 16 
" 14 


310 
249 
175 
270 
216 








1 ''1 


" 12 i 


152 



230 



Corrugated Sheet Iron. 







Weight 


Weight 


Weight per Squareof 100 Square 


No. Bir- 




per 


per 


Feet, when Laid, allowing 6 


mingham 


Thickness. 


Square 


Square 


in. Lap in Length and 21/2111. or 


Gauge. 




Foot 


Foot, Gal- 


one Corrugation in Width of 






Black. 


vanized. 


Sheet, for Sheet Lengths of - 




Inches. 


Ounces. 


Ounces 


5 ft. 


6 ft. 


7 ft. 8 ft. 9 ft. 


10 ft 


16 


.065 


53 


54 


365 


358 


353 350 348 


346 


18 


.049 


39 


40 


275 


270 


267 1 264 


262 


261 


20 


.035 


29 


31 


196 


192 


190 


188 


186 


185 


22 


.028 


23 


25 


156 


154 


152 


150 


149 


148 


24 


.022 


19 


21 


123 


121 


119 


118 


117 


117 


26 


.018 


18 


18 


101 


99 


97 


97 


96 


95 



Galvanised Sheet Iron. 

STANDARD SIZES. 

Nos. 10 to 17 iron 24, 26, 28 and 30 x 72, 84 and 96 inches. 

" 18 to 20 " 24, 26, 28 and 30 X 72, 84 and 96 inches. 

" 21 to 24 " 24, 26. 28 and 30 X 72, 84 and 96 inches. 

" 25 to 26 '• • 24, 26, 28 and 30 X 72, 84 and 96 inches. 

" 27 to 28 " 24, 26, 28 and 30 X 72, 84 and 96 inches. 

EXTREME SIZES. 

Nos. 10 to 17 iron 44 x 120 

'' 18 to 20 " 44 X 120 

" 21 to 24 '' 44 X 96 

" 25 to 26 " 36 X 96 

" 27 to 28 " 30 X 96 

WEIGHT OF GALVANIZED SHEET IRON. 



*No. Wire Gauge. Weight per sq. ft. 

14 60 oz. 

16 48 " 

17 43 " 

18 38 " 

19 :33 " 

20..... 28 " 

21 24 " 

22 21 " 

*Birmingham wire gauge. 



No. Wire Guage. Weight per sq. ft. 

23 19 oz. 

24 17 " 

25 16 " 

26 15 " 

27 14 " 

28 13 " 

29 ,...,. 13 * 



IRON. 



231 



Russia Sheet Iron. 
SIZE 28x56 INCHES = 10.88 square feet. 



Russian 


Weight 


Weight 


Birmingham 


Gauge 


per Sheet. 


per Square Foot. 


Wire Gauge 


No. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


No. 


7 


6.25 


0.574 


29 


8 


7.25 


0.666 


28 


9 


8. 


0.735 


27 


10 


9. 


0.827 


26 


11 


10. 


0.918 


25 


12 


10.75 


0.987 


24V2 


13 


11.75 


1.08 


24 


14 


12.50 


1.15 


23V4 


15 


13.50 


1.24 


223/8 


16 


14.50 


1.33 


21 y2 



PlyAT^ IRON. 

Weight of Superficial Foot. 



Thickness, 
Thickness. Brmingham 
1 Wire Gauge. 


Weight. 


! 
Thickness. 


Thickness, 
Birmingham 
Wire Gauge. 


Weight. 


Inches. 
-3L==.03125 
i>e=.0625 
3\=.0937 
^-125 
g\ — .1562 


No. 
21 
17 
13 light 

103^ 
8V2 • 
6V2 
5 
4 
3 


Pounds 
1.25 
2.519 

3.788 
5.054 
6.305 
7.578 
8.19 
10.09 
11.38 


Inches. 
i56=.3125 
%=.375 
/6=.4375 

% = .625 
^=.75 
%=.875 
l=.l 


No. 

00 
000 


Pounds. 
12.58 
15.10 
17.65 
20.20 




22 76 


A— .1875 




25.16 


^,=.2187 
M — -25 




30.20 




35.30 


A— .2812 




40.40 











To Ascertain the Weight of Plate Iron. 

For Rectangular Sheets. 
Rule. — Multiply the product of length b^v breadth in inches by one of 
the following decimals, according to thickness, and their product will be 
the weight required. 



i^e Thick X .0526 i^e Thick x .1226 

H " X.07 }4 " X.14 

f^ " X.0874 f9g " x.158 
% " " .1048 

For Circular Sheets. 
Rule.— Multiply the square of the diameter by one of the following 
decimals: 

7« Thick X .0962 



X .055 
X .0686 
X .0823 



x.ll 
X.124 



232 



IRON. 



Weight of Sheet and Plate Iron Per Square Foot. 

BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGE. 



No. 


Lbs. 


No. 


Lbs. 


No. 


Lbs. 


1 


11.25 


11 


5. 


21 


1.40625 


2 


10.625 


12 


4.375 


22 


1.25 


3 


10. 


13 


3.75 


23 


L12 


4 


9.375 


14 


3.125 


24 


1. 


5 


8.75 


15 


2.8125 


25 


.90 


6 


8.125 


16 


2.50 


26 


.80 


7 


7.5 


17 


2.1875 


27 


.72 


8 


6.875 


18 


1.875 


28 


.64 


9 


6.25 


19 


1.71875 


29 


.56 


10 


5.625 


20 


1.5625 


30 


.50 



Thickness of Plate and Sheet Iron. 

BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGE. 





Fractional 




Fractional 


No. 


part of an inch. 


No. 


part of an inch. 


1 


3^ 


11 


% 


2 


hi 


12 




3 


'4 


13 


3^ 


4 


gl 


14 


6^4 


5 


/z 


15 


rifi 


6 


il 


16 


h 


7 


^ 


17 


rle 


8 


H 


18 


6^4 


9 


f-. 


20 


rla- 


10 


i. 


22 


^\ 



Superheated steam has been demonstrated by the most distinguished 
engineers, from Watt down to the present day, as the best means of prevent- 
ing "cylinder condensation," to which has been attributed the true cause 
for the enormous loss sustained in the use of the steam engine by the pres- 
ent method of using saturated steam. The way this loss occurs is exem- 
plified as follows : With a cylinder in which steam at half stroke, or 50 
per cent cut-off, is used — say at any pressure— imagine the steam admitted 
until the piston reaches half stroke, the boiler communication closed, and 
the steam allowed to expand through the rest of the stroke, the exhaust 
opened, and the piston returned — then upon the steam coming in on the 
next stroke, we should expect to find the internal surfaces in the same con- 
dition as they were at first. But experiments and all experience have shown 
us, that in the operations which have gone on during the first stroke, 
the internal surfaces have become chilled to a certain extent, and that a 
considerable portion of the steam entering is condensed by them, and con- 
verted into water. 



IRON. 



233 



Table of Weight of Cast Iron.* 

Assuming 450 lbs. to a cubic ft., a pound contains 3.8400 cubic inches 
a ton 5 cubic ft.; and a cubic inch weighs .2604 lbs. 





II 


II 




1! 


1 


i 

Si 


5| 


3 00 

cr-a 


if 


II 


03 

'a 
Xi 


b..d 


u V 


^ 3 








u-O 


t, a; 












i.sl 


O 

So 


-1 


" o 

^ o 




(E.g 

li 


2 « 


r 

•50 


3 

^ 2 


3 . 


ll 


Eh 


H 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


H 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


^ 


3*2 


T0026 


1.173 


.003 


.002 




S.Va 


.2604 


117.3 


30.52 


23.97 


4.162 


4 


.0052 


2.344 


.012 


.010 




^4 


.2708 


121.8 


33.01 


25.93 


4.681 




.0078 


3.516 


.027 


.021 


.0001 


% 


.2813 


126.5 


35.60 


27.95 


5.243 


II 


.0104 


4.687 


.048 


.038 


.0003 


Vi 


.2917 


131.2 


38.28 


30.07 


5.816 


6 


.0130 


5.861 


.076 


.060 


.0005 


% 


.3021 


135.9 


41.07 


32.25 


6.498 


i^ 


.0156 


7.032 


.110 


.086 


.0009 


%. 


.3125 


140.6 


43.95 


34.51 


7.193 


.0182 


8.203 


.150 


.118 


.0014 


% 


.3229 


145.3 


46.93 


36.85 


7.934 


4 


.0208 


9.375 


.195 


.154 


.0021 


4. 


.3333 


150.0 


50.01 


39.27 


8.726 


3*5 


.0234 


10.54 


.247 


.194 


.0030 


% 


.3438 


l.'i4.7 


53.18 


41.77 


9.572 


fs 


.0260 


11.73 


.305 


.240 


.0042 


Va. 


.3542 


159.3 


56.46 


44 33 


10.47 


■U 


.0287 


12.89 


.370 


.290 


.0056 


% 


.3646 


164.0 


59.82 


46.99 


11.42 


% 


.0313 


14.06 


.440 


.346 


.0072 


'A 


.3750 


168.7 


63.33 


49.71 


12.43 


35 


.0339 


15.24 


.516 


.400 


.0092 


% 


.3854 


173.4 


66.86 


52.52 


13.49 


15 


.0365 


16.41 


.598 


.470 


0114 


% 


.3958 


178.1 


70.52 


55.39 


14.62 


!l 


.0391 


17.56 


.687 


.540 


0140 


% 


.4063 


182.8 


74.28 


58.34 


15.81 


.0417 


18.75 


.781 


.610 


.0170 


5. 


.4167 


187.5 


78.12 


61.37 


17.05 


T^B 


.0469 


21.10 


.989 


.777 


0243 


Vs 


.4271 


192.2 


82 10 


64.47 


18.35 


% 


.0521 


23.44 


1.221 


.959 


.0334 


^4 


.4375 


196.9 


86.14 


67.65 


19.73 


IB 


.0573 


25.79 


1.478 


1.161 


.0444 


% 


.4479 


201.6 


90.29 


70.52 


21.18 


M 


.0625 


28.12 


1.758 


1.381 


.0575 


Vi 


.4583 


206.2 


91.54 


74.26 


22.68 


f 


.0677 


30.47 


2.064 


1.621 


.0732 


% 


.4688 


210.9 


98.89 


77.66 


24.27 


.0729 


32.81 


2.393 


1.880 


.0913 


M 


.4792 


215.6 


103.3 


81.16 


25.93 


il 


.0781 


3,5.16 


2.747 


2.1.58 


.1124 


% 


.4896 


220.3 


107.9 


84.72 


27.41 


1. 


.0833 


37..50 


3.125 


2.4.55 


.1363 


6. 


.5000 


225.0 


112.5 


88.30 


29.44 


fB 


.0885 


39.84 


3.528 


2.771 


.1636 


H 


.5208 


234.4 


122.1 


95.89 


33.28 


Vs 


.0938 


42.19 


3.955 


3.107 


.1942 


H 


.5417 


243.8 


132.0 


103.7 


37.44 


TS 


.0990 


44.53 


4.407 


3.461 


.2284 


M 


.5625 


253.1 


142.4 


111.9 


41.94 


H 


.1042 


46.87 


4.883 


3.835 


.2664 


7. 


.5833 


262.5 


153.2 


120.2 


46.77 


T5 


.1094 


49.22 


5.384 


4.229 


.3084 


54 


.6042 


271.9 


164.2 


129.0 


51.97 


% 


.1146 


51.57 


5.909 


4.640 


.3.546 


1/2 


.6250 


281.3 


175.8 


138.1 


57.54 


§ 


.1198 


53.91 


6.461 


5.0 < 3 


.4058 


3£ 


.6458 


290.7 


187.7 


147.4 


63.47 


.12.50 


.56.26 


7.033 


5.. 523 


.4603 


8. 


.6667 


300.0 


200.1 


157.0 


69.82 


i 


.1302 


58.60 


7.632 


5.993 


.5204 


Vi 


.6875 


309.4 


212.7 


167.0 


76.58 


.13.54 


60.94 


8.2.53 


6.484 


.5852 


Vz 


.7083 


318.8 


225.8 


177.3 


83.74 




.1406 


63.28 


8.900 


6.991 


.6555 


% 


.7292 


328.2 


239.3 


187.9 


91.35 


M 


.1458 


65.63 


9.572 


7.518 


.7310 


9. 


.7500 


337.4 


253.1 


198.8 


99.42 


% 


.1.510 


67.97 


10.27 


8.064 


.8122 


/i 


.7708 


346.8 


267.4 


210.0 


107.9 


.1563 


';0..32 


10.99 


8.630 


.8991 


V2 


.7917 


358.2 


282.1 


221.5 


116.8 


n 


.1615 


72.66 


11.73 


9.215 


.9920 


% 


.8125 


365.6 


297.0 


233.3 


126.3 


2 


.1667 


7.5.01 


12.50 


9.821 


1.073 


10. 


.8333 


375.0 


312.5 


245.5 


136.3 


% 


.1771 


79.70 


14.11 


11.09 


1.308 


/4 


.8542 


384.4 


328.4 


257.8 


146.8 


n 


.1875 


84.40 


15.83 


12.43 


1.554 


Vz 


.8750 


393.7 


344.5 


270.6 


157.9 


% 


.1979 


89.07 


17.63 


13.85 


1.827 


% 


.8958 


403.1 


361.2 


283.7 


169.3 


V4 


.2083 


93.75 


19.54 


1.5.34 


2.131 


11. 


.9167 


412.5 


378.2 


297.0 


181.5 


% 


.2188 


98.44 


21..54 


16..56 


2.467 


^4 


.9375 


421.9 


395.5 


310.6 


194.2 




.2292 


103.2 


23.64 


18.. 56 


2.835 


V2 


.9583 


431.2 


413.3 


324.6 


207.3 


% 


.2396 


107.8 


25.84 


20.29 


3 241 


% 


.9792 


440.6 


431.4 


338.8 


219.2 


3. 


.2500 


112.6 


28.13 


22.10 


3.682 


12. 


IFt. 


450. 


4.50. 


353.4 


235.6 



*For copper, multiply by 1.2; lead, multiply by 1.6; brass, add l-7th; 
zinc, multiply by .97. All approximate. 



Flutes of reamers should be 10 or 12 to the inch diametrical pitch. 



234 



Value of Iron Per Gross Ton. 

At from 1 cent to 11% cents per lb. 







$22.40 


4% 


$103.60 


sy^ 




$184.80 


1^ 




25.20 


4^ 


106.40 


8^ 




187.60 


IH 




28.00 


4% 


109.20 


83^ 




190.40 


1% 




30.60 


5 


112 00 


S% 




193.20 


ly. 




33.60 


5^ 


114.80 


s% 




196.00 


IH 




36.40 


5^ 


117.60 


8% 




198.80 


\% 




39.20 


5% 


120.40 


9 




201.60 


1% 




42.00 


5^ 


123.20 


9^ 




204.40 


2 




44.80 


^% 


126.00 


9J€ 




207.20 


2% 




47.60 


5H 


128.80 


9% 




210.00 


2\ 




50.40 


5% 


131.60 


9K 




212.80 


2% 




53.20 


6 


134.40 


^% 




215.60 


2K 




56.00 


6}4 


137.20 


9% 




218.40 


2% 




58.80 


6H 


140.00 


9% 




221.20 


2% 




61.60 


6% 


142.80 


10 




224.00 


2% 




64.40 


6K 


145.60 


lOJ^ 




226.80 


3 




67.20 


6^ 


148.40 


103€ 




229.60 


?>% 




70.00 


6% 


151.20 


10% 




232.40 


3X 




72.80 


evs 


154.00 


lOK 




235.20 


.3% 




75.60 


7 


156.80 


10^ 




238.00 


3M 




78.40 


IVs 


159.60 


10% 




240.80 


3^ 




81.20 


7H ■ 


162.40 


10% 




243.60 


3% 




84.00 


7% 


165.20 


11 




246.40 


3% 




'86.80 


7% 


168.00 


11^ 




249.20 


4 




89.60 


7% 


170.80 


11^ 




252.00 


^% 




92.40 i 


7% 


173.60 


11 p^ 




254.80 


^\ 




95.20 I 


7% 


176.40 


UK 




257.60 


4% 




98.00 j 


8 


179.20 


11^ 




260.40 


4>^ 




100.80 ' 


8^ 


182.00 


11% 




263.20 




Decimal 


Value of 


Iron Per Gross Ton. 






At fro I 


n i*o cent to 


10 cents per pound. 






Cts. 


Dolls. 


CIS. 


Dolls. 


Cts. Dolls. 


cts. 


Dolls. 


.1 


2.24 


2.6 


58.24 


5.1 114.24 


7.6 


170.24 


.2 


4.48 


2.7 


60.48 


5.2 116.48 




7.7 


172,48 


.3 


6.72 


2.8 


62.72 


5.3 118.72 




7.8 


174.72 


.4 


8.96 


2.9 


64.96 


5.4 120.96 




7.9 


176.96 


.5 


11.20 


3 


67.20 


5.5 123.20 




8.0 


179.20 


.6 


13.44 


3.1 


69.44 


5.6 125.44 




8.1 


181.44 


.7 


15.68 


3.2 


71.68 


5.7 127.68 




8.2 


183.68 


.8 


17.92 


3.3 


73.92 


5.8 129.92 




8.3 


185.92 


.9 


20.16 


3.4 


76.16 


5.9 132.16 




8.4 


188.16 


1.0 


22.40 


3.5 


78.40 


6.0 134.40 




8.5 


190.40 


1.1 


24.64 


3.6 


80.64 


6.1 136.64 




8.6 


192.64 


1.2 


26.88 


3.7 


82.88 


6.2 138.88 




8.7 


194.83 


1.3 


29.12 


3.8 


85.12 


6.3 141.12 




8.8 


197.12 


1.4 


31.36 


3.9 


87.36 


6.4 143.36 




8.9 


199.36 


1.5 


33.60 


4.0 


89.60 


6 5 145.60 




9.0 


201.60 


1.6 


35.8-4 


4.1 


91.84 


6.6 147.84 




9.1 


203.84 


1.7 


38.08 


4.2 


94.08 


6.7 150.08 




9.2 


206.08 


1.8 


40.32 


4.3 


96.32 


6.8 152.32 




9.3 


208.32 


1.9 


42.56 


4.4 


98.56 


6.9 154.56 




9.4 


210.56 


2.0 


44.80 


4.5 


100.80 


7.0 156.80 




9.5 


212.80 


2.1 


47.04 


4.6 


103.04 


7.1 159.04 




9.6 


215.04 


2.2 


49.28 


4.7 


105.28 


7.2 161.28 




9.7 


217.28 


2.3 


51.52 


4.8 


107.52 


7.3 163.52 


9.8 


219.52 


2.4 


53.76 


4.9 


109.76 


7.4 165.76 


9.9 


221.76 


2.5 


56.00 


5.0 


112.00 


7.5 168.00 10.0 


224.00 



IRON. 



235 



Value of Iron. 

Value per gross ton (2240 lbs.) of Iron, at from ^^ of a cent to 12)^ 
cents per lb., increasing at the rate of j'gth and % of a cent per lb. 



Per lb. in 




Per lb. in 




Per lb. in 




cents 


Price per ton. 


cents 


Price per ton. 


cents 


Price per ton. 


and i^gths. 




and figths. 




and Vgths 




i\ 


$1.40 


2% 


$58.80 


73/8 


$165.20 


H 


2.80 


2U 


60.20 


71/2 


168.00 


^ 


4.20 


2i^ 


61.60 


7% 


170.80 




5.60 


2\l 


63.00 


73/4 


173.60 


3 


7.00 


2% 


64.40 


7% 


176.40 


% 


8.40 


m 


65.80 


8 


179.20 


/e 


9.80 


3 


67.20 


81/8 


182.00 


K 


11.20 


3M 


70.00 


814 


184.80 


i% 


12.60 


3J^ 


72.80 


83/8 


187.60 


% 


14.00 


3% 


75.60 


81/2 


190.40 


H 


15.40 


3>i 


78.40 


8% 


193.20 


H 


16.80 


3% 


81.20 


834 


196.00 


fl 


18.20 


3% 


84.00 


8V8 


198.80 


Vs 


19.60 


3% 


86.80 


9 


201.60 


M 


21.00 


4 


89.60 


91/8 


204.40 




22.40 


4M 


92.40 


914 


207.20 


ifV 


23.80 


4^ 


95.20 


93/8 


210.00 


1^ 


25.20 


4% 


98.00 


91/2 


212.80 


ii^- 


26.60 


4K 


100.80 


93/4 


218.40 


IH 


28.00 


4^ 


103.60 


97/8 


221.20 


U% 


29.40 


4% 


106.40 


10 


224.00 


1% 


30.80 


4% 


109.20 


101/8 


226.80 


li^e 


32.20 


5 


112.00 


1014 


229.60 


I'A 


33.60 


SYs 


114.80 


103/8 


232.40 


1^ 


35.00 


S% 


117.60 


101/2 


235.20 


1^ 


36.40 


5% 


120.40 


10% 


238.00 


iH 


37.80 


5>^ 


123.20 


103/4 


240.80 


1^ 


39.20 


5^ 


126.00 


107/8 


243.60 


lU 


40.60 


5% 


128.80 


11 


246.40 


1% 


42.00 


5% 


131.60 


111/8 


249.20 


iJI 


43.40 


6 


134.40 


1114 


252.00 


2 


44.80 


6)^ 


137.20 


113/8 


254.80 


2i^e 


46.20 


QM 


140.00 


111/2 


257.60 


2M 


47.60 


6% 


142.80 


iiys 


260.40 


2,^6 


49-00 


6y, 


145.60 


113/4 


263.20 


2J€ 


50.40 


6% 


148.40 


11% 


266.00 


2i% 


51.80 


6H 


151.20 


12 


268.80 


2% 


53.20 


6% 


154.00 


121/8 


271.60 


27e 


54.60 


7 


156.80 


121/4 


274.40 


2% 


56.00 


7)^ 


159.60 


123/8 


277.20 


'^h 


57.40 


7J< 


162.40 


121/2 


280.00 















In a chimney where the draught is produced by the excess of weight of 
the outside air over that of the hot gas in the chimney, the greatest quan- 
tity of gas by weight will pass up the chimney when its temperature is 
about 625 degrees greater than that of the outside air. But it is a well- 
known fact that natural draught is not so economical as a forced draught, 
because a certain amount of heat is wasted in producing this draught — 
about 25 per cent. — and the cost of a forced draught to burn the same 
amount of coal in the same time is not half so great. 



236 



Weight of Wrought and Cast Iron and Steel. 





Wroug'tlron 
per lb. 


Steel 
per lb. 

40.83 

.284 
490. 


Cast Iron 
per lb. 


Per superficial foot, 1 inch thick 

Per cubic inch 


40.42 
.281 
485. 


37.5 
.2 


Per cubic foot 


450 







Average Breaking and Crushing Strains of Iron and Steel. 



Breaking strain of wrought iron = 23 tons...] 
Crushing strain of wrought iron = 17 tons... I 
Breaking strain of cast iron about 7V2 tons... ! 

Crushing strain of cast iron = 50 tons 

Breaking strain of steel bars about 50 tons. 
Crushing strain of steel bars up to 116 tons 



Per square inch of 
section. 



Strength of Iron— Charcoal Pig. 





By whom 

tests were 
made. 


No. of 

sam. 

tested. 










r Mean 


American 


U. S. Ord. 
Dept. 


56 


I Least 
[ Great 


English 


Brit. Ord. 




(-Mean 
- Least 




Dept. 


51 








Great 



lbs. per 

sq. inch. 

9,409 

8,014 
10,717 
7,102 
5,538 
9,120 



Tensile 
strength. 


Specific 

gravity. 


lbs. per 

sq. inch. 

27,232 


7.302 


22,402 


7.163 


31,027 


7.402 


23,257 


7.140 


17,958 


7.052 


28 960 


7.259 



Tests by U. S. Ord- 
nanceDepartraent have 
determined. 

1. That the strength 
and density of iron are 
greatly increased by its 
continued infusion, and 
by its being remelted. 
2. That the transverse 
strength is augmented 
by rapid cooling in 
small castings. 

3. That the tensile 
strength is increased 
by slow cooling inlarge 
masses. 



soI/D:e^ring iron and stireI/. 

Dr. Siebvirger publishes the following methods for soldering iron and 
steel: 

If large and thick pieces of iron and steel are to be joined, sheet copper 
or brass is placed between the perfectly clean surfaces to be united, which 
are then tightly wired together. The joint is covered with wet claj-- free 
from sand, and dried slowly near the fire. When the mud is dry the joint 
is heated by a blast to a white heat and cooled, suddenly if iron, and slowly 
if steel. When brass is used, it requires less heat, of course than copper. 

For objects of moderate size, hard brass solder is made by fusing to- 
gether 8 parts of brass and 1 part tin. Soft brass solder is composed of 6 
parts brass, 1 part zinc, and 1 part tin. 

For soldering small iron or steel articles, a hard silver solder composed 
of equal parts of fine silver and malleable brass is used, the mass being pro- 
tected by borax. Soft silver solder differs from this only in the addition of 
3^6 part tin. 

Very fine and delicate articles are soldered either with pure gold or a 
gold solder composed of 1 part gold, 2 parts silver, 3 parts copper. 



237 



Weight of Sheets of Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and Brass. 

WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT. THICKNESS BY BIRMINGHAM GAUGE. 



No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


0000 


.454 


18.22 


18.46 


20.57 


19.43 


000 


.425 


17.05 


17.28 


19.25 


18.19 


00 


.38 


15.25 


15.45 


17.21 


16.26 





.34 


13.64 


13.82 


15.40 


14.55 


1 


.3 


12.04 


12.20 


13.59 


12.84 


2 


.284 


11.40 


11.55 


12.87 


12.16 


3 


.259 


10.39 


10.53 


11.73 


11.09 


4 


.238 


9.55 


9.68 


10.78 


10.19 


5 


.22 


8.83 


8.95 


9.97 


9.42 


6 


.203 


8.15 


8.25 


9.20 


8.69 


7 


.18 


7.22 


7.32 


8.15 


7.70 


8 


.165 


6.62 


6.71 


7.47 


7.06 


9 


.148 


5.94 


6.02 


6.70 


6.33 


10 


.134 


5.38 


5.45 


6.07 


5 74 


11 


.12 


4.82 


4.88 


5.44 


5.14 


12 


.109 


4.37 


4.43 


4.94 


4.67 


13 


.095 


3.81 


3.86 


4.30 


4.07 


14 


.083 


3.33 


3.37 


3.76 


3.55 


15 


.072 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


16 


.065 


2.61 


2.64 


2.94 


2.78 


17 


.058 


2.33 


2.36 


2.63 


2.48 


18 


.049 


1.97 


1.99 


2.22 


2.10 


19 


.042 


1.69 


1.71 


1.90 


1.80 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.42 


1.59 


1.50 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


1.27 


1.20 


23 


.025 


1.00 


1.02 


1.13 


1.07 


24 


.022 


.883 


.895 


1.00 


.942 


25 


.02 


.803 


.813 


.906 


.856 


26 


.018 


.722 


.732 


815 


.770 


27 


.016 


.642 


.651 


.725 


.685 


28 


.014 


.562 


.569 


.634 


.599 


29 


.013 


.522 


.529 


.589 


.556 


30 


.012 


.482 


.488 


.544 


.514 


31 


.01 


.401 


.407 


.453 


.428 


32 


.009 


.361 


.366 


.408 


.385 


33 


.008 


.321 


.325 


.362 


.342 


34 


.007 


.281 


.285 


.317 


.300 


35 


.005 


.201 


.203 


.227 


.214 


Specific Gravity, 


7.704 


7.806 


8.698 


8.218 


Weight Cubic 'Foot. 


481.25 


487.75 


543.6 


513.6 


" Inch, 


.2787 


.2823 


.3146 


.2972 



Incrustation is commonly stated to be a bad conductor of heat, and 
that any great thickness of it on the plates of a boiler causes a largely- in- 
creased expenditure of fuel. It is not clearly determined yet whether the 
increased expenditure of fuel is quite so great as has been claimed. In 
many instances it is grossly exaggerated. 



238 



IRON. 



Weight of Sheets of Wrought Iron, Steel, Copper and BraSvH. 

(Continued.) 

WEIGHT PER SQ. FOOT. THICKNESS BY AMERICAN (BROWNE & SHARPE's) 



GAUGE, 



No. of 
Gauge. 


Thickness 
in inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


0000 


.46 


18.46 


18.70 


20.84 


19.69 


000 


.4096 


16.44 


16.66 


18.56 


17.53 


. 00 


.3648 


14.64 


14.83 


16.53 


15.61 





.3249 


13.04 


13.21 


14.72 


13.90 


1 


.2893 


11.61 


11.76 


13.11 


12.38 


2 


.2576 


10.34 


10.48 


11.67 


11.03 


3 


.2294 


9.21 


9.33 


10.39 


9.82 


4 


.2043 


8.20 


8.31 


9.26 


8.74 


5 


.1819 


7.30 


7.40 


8.24 


7.79 


6 


.1620 


6.50 


6.59 


7.34 


6.93: 


7 


.1443 


5.79 


5.87 


6.54 


6.18 


8 


.1285 


5.16 


5.22 


5.82 


5.50 


9 


.1144 


4.59 


4.65 


5.18 


4.90 


10 


.1019 


4.09 


4.14 


4.62 


4.36 


11 


.0907 


3.64 


3.69 


4.11 


3.88 


12 


.0808 


3.24 


3.29 


3.66 


3.46 


13 


.0720 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


14 


.0641 


2.57 


2.61 


2.90 


2.74 


15 


.0571 


2.29 


2.32 


2.59 


2 44 


16 


.0508 


2.04 


2.07 


2.30 


2.18 


17 


.0453 


1.82 


1.84 


2.05 


1.94 


18 


.0403 


1.62 


1.64 


1.83 


1.73 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


1.63 


1.54 


20 


.0320 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


21 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


1.29 


1.22 


22 


.0253 


1.02 


1.03 


1.15 


1.08 


23 


.0226 


.906 


.918 


1.02 


.966 


24 


.0201 


.807 


.817 


.911 


.860 


25 


.0179 


.718 


.728 


.811 


.766 


26 


.0159 


.640 


.648 


.722 


.682 


27 


.0142 


.570 


.577 


.643 


.608 


28 


.0126 


.507 


.514 


.573 


.541 


29 


.0113 


•452 


.458 


.510 


.482 


30 


.0100 


.402 


.408 


.454 


.429 


31 


.0089 


.358 


.363 


.404 


.382 


32 


.0080 


.319 


.323 


.360 


.340 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.288 


.321 


.303 


34 


.0063 


.253 


.256 


.286 


.270 


35 


.0056 


.225 


.228 


.254 


.240 



As there are many gauges in use differing from each other, and even the 
thicknesses of a certain specified gauge, as the Birmingham, are not assumed 
the same by all manufacturers, orders for sheets and wire should always 
state the weight per square foot, or the thickness in thousandths of an inch. 



239 



Iron. 

The specific gravity of electro deposited iron is 8.139; that of steel bars 
and plates averages 7.823; that of tilted or hammered iron bars and forg- 
ings ranges from 7.76 to 7,798; that of rolled iron plates or bars varies 
between 7.76 and 7.54.. The specific gravity of cast iron ranges between 
6.85 and 7.35; that used in construction averaging 7.1. Wrought iron is 
very bad in quality when its specific gravity is less than 7.5. 

Table Showing the Number of Square Feet in Circular Heads 
(Unflanged) of Given Diameter. 



Diam. in 


Area in 


Diam. in 


Area in 


Diam. in 


Area in 


Inches. 


Sqr. ft. 


Inches. 


Sqr. ft. 


Inches. 


Sq. ft. 


12 


.7854 


57 


17.72 


101 


55.64 


13 


.922 


58 


18.35 


102 


56.75 


14 


1.07 


59 


18.99 


103 


57.86 


15 


1.23 


60 


19.64 


104 


58.99 


16 


1.40 


61 


20.09 


105 


60.13 


17 


1.58 


62 


20.97 


106 


61.28 


18 


1.77 


63 


21.65 


107 


62.44 


19 


1.97 


64 


22.34 


108 


63.62 


20 . 


2.18 


65 


23.04 


109 


64.80 


21 


2.41 


66 


23.76 


110 


66. 


22 


2.64 


67 


24.48 


111 


67.20 


23 


2.89 


68 


25.22 


112 


68.42 


24 


3.14 


69 


25.97 


113 


69.64 


25 


3.41 


70 


26.73 


114 


70.88 


26 


3.69 


71 


27.49 


115 


72.13 


27 


3.98 


72 


28.27 


116 


73.39 


28 


4.28 


73 


29.06 


117 


74.66 


29 


4.59 


74 


29.87 


118 


75.94 


30 


4.91 


75 


30.68 


119 


77.24 


31 


5.24 


76 


31.50 


120 


78.54 


32 


5.59 


77 


32.34 


121 


79.85 


33 


5.94 


78 


33.18 


122 


81.18 


34 


6.30 


79 


34.04 


123 


82.52 


35 


6.68 


80 


34.91 


124 


83.86 


36 


7.07 


81 


35.78. 


125 


85.22 


37 


7.47 


82 


36.67 


126 


86.59 


38 


7.88 


83 


37.57 


127 


87.97 


39 


8.30 


84 


38.48 


128 


89.36 


40 


8.73 


85 


39.41 


129 


90.76 


41 


9.17 


86 


40.34 


130 


92.17 


42 


9.62 


87 


41.28 


131 


93.60 


43 


10.08 


88 


42.24 


132 


95.03 


44 


10.56 


89 


43.20 


133 


96.48 


45 


11.04 


90 


44.18 


134 


97.93 


46 


11.54 


91 


45.17 


135 


99.40 


47 


12.05 


92 


46.16 


136 


100.88 


48 


12.57 


93 


47.17 


137 


102.37 


49 


13.10 


94 


48.19 


138 


103.87 


50 


13.64 


95 


49.22 


139 


105.38 


51 


14.19 


96 


50.27 


140 


106.90 


52 


14.75 


97 


51.32 


141 


108.43 


53 


15.32 


98 


52.38 


142 


109.98 


54 


15.90 


99 


53.46 


143 


111.53 


55 


16.50 


100 


54.54 


144 


113.10 


56 


17.10 











240 



LOGARITHMS. 



I^OGARITHMS OF NUMBERS. 



No. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Diff. 


10 


0000 


0043 


0086 


0128 


0170 


0212 


0253 


0294 


0334 


0374 


40 


11 
12 
13 

14 
15 
16 

17 

18 
19 


0414 
0792 
1139 

1461 
1761 
2041 

2304 
2553 

2788 


0453 

0828 
1173 

1492 
1790 
2068 

2330 
2577 
2810 


0492 
0864 
1206 

1523 
1818 
2095 

2355 
2601 
2833 


0531 
0899 
1239 

1553 
1847 
2122 

2380 
2625 
2856 


0569 
0934 
1271 

1584 
1875 
2148 

2405 

2648 
2878 


0607 
0969 
1303 

1614 
1903 
2175 

2430 
2672 
2900 


0645 
1004 
1335 

1644 
1931 
2201 

2455 
2695 
2923 


0682 
1038 
1367 

1673 
1959 
2227 

2480 
2718 
2945 


0719 
1072 
1399 

1703 
1987 
2253 

2504 
2742 
2967 


0755 
1106 
1430 

1732 
2014 
2279 

2529 
2765 
2989 


37 
33 
31 

29 
27 
25 

24 
23 
21 


20 


3010 


3032 


3054 


3075 


3096 


3118 


3139 


3160 


3181 


3201 


21 


21 
22 
23 

24 
25 
26 

27 

28 
29 


3222 
3424 
3617 

3802 
3979 
4150 

4314 
4472 
4624 


3243 
3444 
3636 

3820 
3997 
4166 

4330 

4487 
4639 


3263 
3464 
3655 

3838 
4014 
4183 

4346 
4502 
4654 


3284 
3483 
3674 

3856 
4031 
4200 

4362 
4518 
4669 


3304 
3502 
3692 

3874 
4048 
4216 

4378 
4533 

4683 


3324 
3522 
3711 

3892 
4065 
4232 

4393 

4548 
4698 


3345 
3541 
3729 

3909 
4082 
4249 

4409 
4564 

4713 


3365 
3560 
3747 

3927 
4099 
4265 

4425 
4579 

4728 


3385 
3579 
3766 

3945 
4116 
4281 

4440 
4594 
4742 

4886 


3404 
3598 
3784 

3962 
4133 
4298 

4456 
4609 
4757 

4900 


20 
19 
18 

17 
17 
16 

16 
15 
14 


30 


4771 


4786 


4800 


4814 


4829 


4843 


4857 


4871 


14 


31 
32 
33 

34 
35 
36 

37 
38 
39 


4914 
5051 
5185 

5315 
5441 
5563 

5682 
5798 
5911 


4928 
5065 
5198 

5328 
5453 
5575 

5694 
5809 
5922 


4942 
5079 
5211 

5340 
5465 

5587 

5705 
5821 
5933 


4955 
5092 
5224 

5353 

5478 
5599 

5717 
5832 
5944 


4969 
5105 
5237 

5366 
5490 
5611 

5729 
5843 
5955 


4983 
5119 
5250 

5378 
5502 
5623 

5740 
5855 
5966 


4997 
5132 
5263 

5391 
5514 
5635 

5752 
5866 
5977 


5011 
5145 
5276 

5403 
5527 
5647 

5763 

5877 
5988 


5024 
5159 
5289 

5416 
5539 
5658 

5775 

5888 
5999 


5038 
5172 
5302 

5428 
5551 
5670 

5786 
5899 
6010 


13 
13 
13 

13 
12 
12 

12 
12 
11 


No 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 1 7 1 


8 


9 


Diff. 



The best mode of oiling a belt is to take it from the pulleys, and im- 
merse it in a warm solution of tallow and oil; after allowing it to remain a 
few moments, the belt should be immersed in water heated to 100 degrees 
Fahr., and instantly removed. This will drive the oil and tallow all in, and 
at the same time properly temper the leather. 



LOGARITHMS. 



241 



LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS. 

{Continued.) 



No. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Diff. 


40 


6021 


6031 


6042 


6053 


6064 


6075 


6085 


6096 


6107 


6117 


11 


41 
42 
43 

44 
45 
46 

47 

48 
49 


6128 
6232 
6335 

6435 
6532 
6628 

6721 

6812 
6902 


6138 
6243 
6345 

6444 
6542 
6637 

6730 
6821 
6911 


6149 
6253 
6355 

6454 
6551 
6646 

6739 
6830 
6920 


6160 
6263 
6365 

6464 
6561 
6656 

6749 
6839 
6928 


6170 
6274 
6375 

6474 
0571 
6665 

6758 
6848 
6937 


6180 
6284 
6385 

6484 
6580 
6675 

6767 
6857 
6946 


6191 
6294 
6395 

6493 
6590 
6684 

6776 
6866 
6955 


6201 
6304 
6405 

6503 
6599 
6693 

6785 
6875 
6964 


6212 
6314 
6415 

6513 
6609 
6702 

6794 

6884 
6972 


6222 
6325 
6425 

6522 
6618 
6712 

6803 
6893 
6981 


10 
10 
10 

10 

10 

9 

9 
9 
9 


50 


6990 


6998 


7007 


7016 


7024 


'7033 


7042 7050 


7059 


7067 


9 


51 
52 
53 

54 
55 
56 

57 
58 
59 


7076 
7160 
7243 

7324 

7404 
7482 

7559 
7634 
7709 


7084 
7168 
7251 

7332 
7412 
7490 

7566 
7642 
7716 


7093 
7177 
7259 

7340 
7419 
7497 

7574 
7649 
7723 


7101 
7185 
7267 

7348 
7427 
7505 

7582 
7657 
7731 


7110 
7193 
7275 

7356 
7435 
7513 

7589 
7664 
7738 


7118 
7202 

7284 

7364 
7443 
7520 

7597 
7672 
7745 


7126 
7210 
7292 

7372 
7451 

7528 

7604 
7679 
7752 


7135 

7218 
7300 

7380 
7459 
7536 

76L2 
7686 
7760 


7143 
7226 
7308 

7388 
7466 
7543 

7619 
7694 

7767 


7152 
7235 
7316 

7396 
7474 
7551 

7627 
7701 

7774 


8 
8 
8 

8 
8 
8 

7 
8 
8 


60 


7782 


7789 


7796 


7803 


7810 


7818 


7825 


7832 


7839 


7846 


7 


61 

62 
63 

64 
65 
66 

67 
68 
69 


7853 
7924 
7993 

8062 
8129 
8195 

8261 
8325 

8388 


7860 
7931 

8000 

8069 
8136 
8202 

8267 
8331 
8395 


7868 
7938 
8007 

8075 
8142 
8209 

8274 
8338 
8401 


7875 
7945 
8014 

8082 
8149 
8215 

8280 
8344 
8407 


7882 
7952 
8021 

8089 
8156 
8222 

8287 
8351 

8414 


7889 
7959 
8028 

8096 
8162 
8228 

8293 
8357 
8420 


7896 
7966 
8035 

8102 
8169 
8235 

8299 
8363 
8426 


7903 
7973 
8041 

8109 
8176 
8241 

8306 
8370 
8432 


7910 

7980 
8048 

8116 

8182 
8248 

8312 
8376 
8439 


7917 
7987 
8055 

8122 
8189 
8254 

8319 
8382 
8445 


7 
6 

7 

7 
6 

7 

6 
6 
6 


No. 





1 


2 


1 3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Diff. 



Water contracts and becomes denser in cooling, until it reacher 39.2 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, when it has reached its greatest densit}'. Belowthis point 
it expands, and at 32 degrees Fahrenheit it becomes solid, or freezes, and 
in the act of freezing expands considerably. Owing to the expansion, ice is 
lighter than water, it having a specific gravity of 0.916, water being 
1.000. ig 



242 



LOGARITHMS. 



LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS. 

(Continued.) 



No. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


Diff. 


70 


8451 


8457 


8463 


8470 


8476 


8482 


8488 


8494 


8500 


8506 


7 


71 
72 
73 

74 
75 
76 

77 
78 
79 


8513 
8573 
8633 

8692 

8751 
8808 

8865 
8921 
8976 


8519 
8579 
8639 

8698 
8756 
8814 

8871 
8927 
8982 


8525 
8585 
8645 

8704 
8762 
8820 

8876 
8932 
8987 


8531 
8591 
8651 

8710 
8768 
8825 

8882 
8938 
8993 


8537 
8597 
8657 

8716 

8774 
8831 

8887 
8943 
8998 


8543 
8603 
8663 

8722 

8779 
8837 

8893 
8949 
9004 


8549 
8609 
8669 

8727 
8785 
8842 

8899 
8954 
9009 


8555 
8615 
8675 

8733 
8791 
8848 

8904 
8960 
9015 


8561 
8621 
8681 

8739 

8797 
8854 

8910 
8965 
9020 


8567 
8627 
8686 

8745 
8802 
8859 

8915 
8971 
9025 


6 
6 
6 

6 
6 
6 

6 
5 
6 


80 


9031 


9036 


9042 


9047 


9053 


9058 


9063 


9069 9074 


9079 


6 


81 
82 
83 

84 
85 
86 

87 
88 
89 


9085 
9138 
9191 

9243 
9294 
9345 

9395 
9445 
9494 


9090 
9143 
9196 

9248 
9299 
9350 

9400 
9450 
9499 


9096 
9149 
9201 

9253 
9304 
9355 

9405 
9455 
9504 


9101 
9154 
9206 

9258 
9309 
9360 

9410 
9460 
9509 


9106 
9159 
9212 

9263 
9315 
9365 

9415 
9465 
9513 


9112 
9165 
9217 

9269 
9320 
9370 

9420 
9469 
9518 


9117 
9170 
9222 

9274 
9325 
9375 

9425 
9474 
9523 


9122 
9175 
9227 

9279 
9330 
9380 

9430 
9479 
9528 


9128 
9180 
9232 

9284 
9335 
9385 

9435 
9484 
9533 


9133 
9186 
9238 

9289 
9340 
9390 

9440 
9489 
9538 


5 
5 
5 

5 
5 
5 

5 
5 
4 


90 


9542 


9547 


9552 


9557 


9562 


9566 


9571 


9576 


9581 


9586 


4 


91 
92 
93 

94 
95 
96 

97 
98 
99 


9590 
9638 
9685 

9731 

9777 
9823 

9868 
9912 
9956 


9595 
9643 
9689 

9736 

9782 
9827 

9872 
9917 
9961 


9600 
9647 
9694 

9741 
9786 
9832 

9877 
9921 
9965 


9605 
9652 
9699 

9745 
9791 
9836 

9881 
9926 
9969 


9609 
9657 
9703 

9750 
9795 
9841 

9886 
9930 
9974 


9614 
9661 
9708 

9754 
9800 
9845 

9890 
9934 
9978 


9619 
9666 
9713 

9759 
9805 
9850 

9894 
9939 
9983 


9624 
9671 
9717 

9763 
9809 
9854 

9899 
9943 
9987 


9628 
9675 
9722 

9768 
9814 
9859 

9903 
9948 
9991 


9633 
9680 
9727 

9773 

9818 
9863 

9908 
9952 
9996 


5 
5 
4 

4 
5 
5 

4 
4 

4 


No. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 ! 9 iDiff. 



Water containing carbonate of lime, held in solution by free carbonic 
acid, boils steadily, and is not liable to cause foaming. As the water boils 
the carbonic acid gradually escapes, the carbonate of Hme then being de- 
posited in the insoluble, and frequently in the crystalline state. The more 
slowly it is deposited, the more crystalline it will be, sometimes becoming 
hard like a rock, and requiring to be chipped off with hammer and chisel. 



LONGITUDE. 



243 



Hyperbolical Logarithms. 



No. 


; 
Logarithm. 


No. 


Logarithm. 


No. 


Logarithm. 


1.25 


.22314 


5. 


1.60943 


9.5 


2.25129 


1.5 


.40546 


5.25 


1.65822 


10. 


2.30258 


1.75 


.55961 


5.5 


1.70474 


11. 


2.39789 


2. 


.69314 


5.75 


1.74919 


12. 


2.48490 


2.25 


.81093 


6. 


1.79175 


13. 


2.56494 


2.5 


.91629 


1 6.25 


1.83258 


14. 


2.63905 


2.75 


1.01160 


6.5 


1.87180 


15. 


2.70805 


3. 


1.09861 


6.75 


1.90954 


16. 


2.77258 


3.25 


1.17865 


I 7. 


1.94591 


17. 


2.83421 


3.5 


1.25276 


7.25 


1.98100 


18. 


2.89037 


3.75 


1.32175 


7.5 


2.01490 


19. 


2.94443 


4. 


1.38629 


7.75 


2.04769 


20. 


2.99573 


4.25 


1.44691 


8. 


2.07944 


21. 


3.04452 


4.5 


1.50507 


8.5 


2.14006 


22. 


3.09104 


4.75 


1.55814 


9. 


2.19722 







Hyperbolic logarithms are used for computing the areas included within 
hyperbolic curves, and are most convenient for that purpose. For the man- 
ner in which this is done, see Weisbach's Mechanics of Engineering. 



I/cngths of a Degree of Longitude in Different Latitudes, 

at Sea Level. 



Deg. of 
Latitude. 


Miles. 


: Deg. of 
Latitude. 


Miles. 


Deg. of 
Latitude. 


Miles. 


Deg. of 
Latitude. 


Miles. 





69.16 


1 26 


62.20 


52 


42.67 


78 


14.42 


2 


69.12 


28 


61.11 


54 


40.74 


80 


12.05 


4 


68.99 


30 


59.94 


56 


38.76 


82 


9.66 


6 


68.78 


32 


58.76 


58 


36.74 






8 


68.49 


34 


57.39 i 


60 


34.67 






10 


68.12 


36 


56.01 ; 


62 


32.55 






12 


67.66 


38 


54.56 


64 


30.40 






14 


67.12 


40 


53.05 


66 


28.21 






16 


66.50 


42 


5L47 


68 


25.98 






18 


65.80 


44 


49.83 


70 


28.72 






20 


65.02 


46 


48.12 


72 


21.43 






22 


64.15 


48 


46.36 


74 


19.12 






24 


63.21 


50 


44.54 


76 


16.78 







Dynamite is simply nitro-glycerine mixed with various ingredients, 
such as nitrate of soda, carbonate of magnesia, and wood pulp. It is put 
up in paper shells, usually one and a quarter inches in diameter, and eight 
inches in length, and weighs about one-half pound to each shell or car- 
tridge. 

Dynamite will not explode from any ordinary fall or jar; it will burn 
without explosion, and freezes at forty-two degrees, ten degrees above 
ordinary freezing point. The fumes of nitro-glycerine produce intense 
headache, which can be cured bj' taking a very small dose of it internally. 



244 



SAP JOINTS— LOCOMOTIVES. 



Fairbairn's Table for Proportioning the Riveting for Steam 
and Water-tight I/ap Joints. 



Thickness 
of each 
plate. 


Diameter 

of 

Rivets. 


Length 
of Shank 

before 
driving. 


From 
Center to 
Center of 

Rivets. 


Lap in 

Single 

Rievting. 


Lap in 

Double 

Riveting. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


1^6 

% 
% 


% 

y^ 
% 
% 

16 
il 

ly^ 


% 
1% 

2% 
3M 


1¥ 
2 

2y 

3 


1% 
2 

2% 
2% 

3^ 


2/6 

2y^ 

3r*6 

3% 

4^ 
5K 



Joints for boilers and water tight cisterns are usually proportioned 
about as per the above table. Mr. Fairbairn considers the strength of the 
single-riveted lap joint to be about .56, and that of the double-riveted 
about .7 that of one of the full unholed plates, when both joints are 
proportioned as in the above table, Trautwine thinks .5 and .6 (or about 
one-seventh part less than Fairbairn's assumption) can be relied upon as 
safe for practice, with fair qualities of plate and rivet iron. For important 
work holes should be drilled, not punched. For steel plates the above pro- 
portions are too small. 

To Find the Horse Power of a I^ocomotive. 

Rule: Multiply the mean effective pressure per square inch of piston by 
the length of stroke in feet, and this product by the area of piston in square 
inches, and this product by the number of strokes per minute, and finally, 
multiply this last product by 2, for both cylinders, and divide by 33,000. 

Example: What is the horse-power of a locomotive with cylinders 17 
inch diameter and 24 inch stroke, mean effective pressure 120 pounds per 
square inch, and drivers making 152 revolutions per minute? 

120 X 2 = 240 

240 X 226.9 =54456.0 

54456.0 X 304=16554624.0 

16554624.0 X 2 =33109248.0 

33109248.0 



33,000 



=1003 horse-power nearly. 



Hauling Capacity of I^ocomotives. 

The following table shows the loads or weights of train which locomo- 
tives can haul on different grades and curves, at a speed of 20 miles an 
hour under ordinary conditions, in tons of 2,000 lbs., not including engine 
and tender. The calculations are made for the following types of engines: 

Type A. — American locomotive with lour driving-wheels and 12,000 lbs. 
weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine being 36 tons. 

Type B. — Mogul or ten-wheeled locomotive, with six driving-wheels 



LOCOMOTIVES. 



245 



and 12,000 lbs. weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine being 
about 42 tons. 

Type C. — Consolidation locomotive with eight driving-wheels and 12,- 
000 lbs. weight on each wheel, the total weight of engine being about 54 
tons. 



ON STRAIGHT TRACK : 

Level 

Grade 20 ft. per mile 

40 " " 

60 " " 

80 " " 

100 " " 

ON 5-DEGREE CURVES. 

Level 

Grade 20 ft. per mile ..... 

40 " " 

60 " " 

80 " " 

100 " " 

ON 10-DEGREE CURVES: 

Level 

Grade 20 ft. per mile 

40 " " 

60 " '' 

80 " " 

100 " •' 



TYPE "a." 


TPYE "b." 


TYPE"C." 


1,096 


1,664 


2,226 


547 


8403^ 


1,128 


350 


545 


734 


249 


390K 


522 


188 


302 


410 


148 


242 


330 


921 


1,4013^3 


1,876 


464 


716 


962 


310 


485 


654 


227 


360 K 


488 


173 


279K 


380 


137 


225}4 


308 


662 


1,013 


1,358 


401 


621K 


836 


278 


477 


590 


207 


330K 


448 


160 


260 


354 


128 


212 


290 



Under the most favorable conditions, loads about 50 per cent, greater 
than these can be hauled. 



Table of Gradients and Resistance Due to Gravity Per Ton, for 

Each. 



VERTICAL RISE. 




VERTICAL RISE. 








RESISTANCE 
PER TON. 

1 






RESISTANCE 


Ratio. 


Per Mile. 


Ratio. 


Per Mile. 


PER TON. 


one in. 


feet. 


lbs. 


one in. 


feet. 


lbs. 


100 


52.8 


22.4 


60 


88. 


37.3 


98 


53.9 


22.8 


58 


91. 


38.6 


96 


55. 


23.3 


56 


94.2 


40. 


94 


56.1 


23.8 


54 


97.7 


41.4 


92 


57.5 


24.3 


52 


101.5 


43. 


90 


58.6 


24.9 


50 


105.6 


44.8 


88 


60. 


25.4 


48 


110. 


46.6 


86 


61.3 


26. i 46 


115. 


48.6 


84 


62.8 


26 6 44 


120. 


50.9 


82 


64 3 


27 3 1 42 


125.7 


53.3 


80 


66. 


28. 


' 40 


132. 


56. 


78 


67.6 


28.7 


38 


138.9 


58.9 


76 


69.4 


29.4 


36 


146.6 


62.2 


74 


71 3 


32.2 


34 


155.3 


65.8 


72 


73.3 


31.1 


32 


165. 


70. 


70 


754 


32. 


30 


176. 


74.6 


68 


77.6 


32.9 


28 


188.5 


80. 


66 


80. 


33.9 


26 


203. 


86.1 


64 


82.5 


35. 


24 


220. 


93.3 


62 


85.1 


36.1 


22 


240. 


101.8 



246 LOCOMOTIVES. 



Resistance of Trains, on a I^evel, at Different Speeds, in I<bs. Per 

Ton, of I^oad. 

V = Velocity in miles per hour. 

R = Resistance in lbs. per ton of train. 

The resistance of curves may be reckoned as 1 per cent, for each degree 

of the curve occupied by the train. 

Imperfections ot road var\' from 5 to 40 per cent. 

Strong side winds, 20 per cent. 

Velocity of trains in miles per hour 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 

Resistance on straight line in lbs. per ton SYs 9^4 IO14 13J4 1714 22% 29 36H 

with sharp curves and strong winds*. 13 14 15% 20 26 34 4314 55 

* 50 per cent, added to resistance on straight line. 

Adhesive Power of l/ocomotives. 

Adhesion per ton of load on the driving wheels: 

When the rails are very dry 600 lbs. per ton. 

When the rails are very wet 550 " " 

In misty weather if the rails are greasy .300 " " 

In frosty or snowy weather 200 " " 

In coupled engines the adhesive force is due to the load on all wheels 
coupled to the driving wheels. 

The adhesive power must exceed the tractive force of an engine on the 
rails, otherwise the wheels will slip. For loads on driving wheels see below. 

Distribution of Weight in lyocomotives. 

The average distribution of the weights of a six-wheeled locomotive on 
its wheels is: 

Assuming the total weight of the engine in working order to be 1 : 

PASSENGER FREIGHT 

ENGINES. ENGINES. 

Load on leading wheel 32 .34 

" driving wheels 48 .36 

" trailing wheels 20 .30 

Total weight of engine 1.00 1.00 

Passenger engines, narrow gauge, average from 20 to 30 tons. 

Freight engines " 24 to 32 " 

Broad-gauge engines, first-class " 35 " 

Incline engines " 40 to 47 " 

Tractive Power of I^ocomotives. 

Let D = Diameter of cylinder in inches. 
" P = Mean pressure of steam in cylinders in lbs. per square inch. 
" L = Length of stroke in inches. 
" W = Diameter of driving wheel in inches. 

DoPL 

Tractive force on rail in lbs. will equal 

W 



LOCOMOTIVES— MEASURING LAND. 247 

To Find the I/oad which an Engine will Take on a Given Incline. 

Let G = Resistance due to gravity on the steepest gradient in lbs. per ton. 

(See Index for "Gradients.") 
" R = Resistance due to assumed velocity of train in lbs. per ton. (See 

Index for "Resistance of Trains.") 
" T = Tractive power of engine in lbs. as found above. 
" W = Weight of engine and tender in tons. 

The load the engine can take in tons including the v(^eight of the 

T 

wagons but not that of engine and tender will equal =W. 

G+R 

I^og I/ine. 

A log-line is a knotted cord, the distance between the knots being r|o 
of a nautical mile apart, that is, 50i% f<?et. The log Hne is allowed to run 
out for 30 seconds, which is ^^g of an hour, so that the distance between 
knots on the cord bears the same ratio to a degree that the time does to 
the hour. 

Thus if 8 knots on the log-line run through the hand of the seaman 
while the sand in the V2-minute glass is running out, it is an indication that 
the vessel is traveling 8 nautical miles per hour. 

A lyine. 

A line is one-twelfth of an inch, and is usually employed in measuring 
the diameter of lenses, watch glasses, etc. 

I/ubricant for Milling Cutters, Etc. 

10 lbs. Whale Oil Soap. 
15 lbs. Sal. Soda. 
2 galls, best Lard Oil. 
Shave the soap so that it will dissolve readily and put the whole in a 
clean 4G gallon cask, and fill with water. Introduce a steam pipe into the 
water so that it may be boiled. W'hen thoroughly dissolved it is ready for 
use. Keep warm in winter. 

Measuring I^and. 

A lot 5 3'ds. wide X 968 yds. long = 1 acre. 
10 " X 484 ': = 1 " 

40 " X 121 " = 1 " 

80 " X 6OV2 " =1 " 

70 " X 69f " =1 " 

" 220 ft. long X 198 ft. wide = 1 acre. 
" 440 " X 99 " =1 '« 

" 110 ft. wideX 396 ft. long = 1 " 
" 240 ft. long X ISlVs ft, wide =^ 1 " 
43,560 sq. ft, = 1 acre. 
4,840 sq. yds. = 1 '♦ 



248 LUMBER. 



Average Weight of I/umber Per Foot. 

One foot Green Yellow Pine weighs 3K lbs. 

Dry " " 3 " 

Green Walnut " 4^ " 

Dry " " 3H " 

•* Green Poplar " 31^" 

Dry " " 2H " 

" Green Oak " 5 " 

Dry " " 4J^ " 

" Green Ash " 4K " 

Dry ♦• " 3K " 

Cherry, same as Walnut. Hickory-, same as Oak. 

Table of Weight of I^umber. 

Pine, thoroughly seasoned 3,000 lbs. per 1,000 ft. 

Hemlock, " " 

Poplar, " " " •' *' 

Black Walnut, " " 4,000 lbs. " " 

Ash, " " 

Maple, " " 

Cherry, " " 

Pine, green *' " " 

Hemlock, " 

Poplar, " " " " 

Black Walnut, " 4,500 lbs. ** " 

Ash, " 

Maple, " " " ** 

Cherry, " " " " 

Oak, Hickory and Elm, dry, 4,000 lbs. " " 

Oak, " " green 5,000 lbs. " " 

Shingles, green 375 lbs. per 1,000 

Lath, " 500 lbs. 

Weight of IfOgs. 

Weight of green logs to scale 1,000 feet, board measure. 

Yellow Pine (Southern) 8,000 to 10,000 lbs. 

Norway Pine (Michigan) 7,000 to 8,000 lbs. 

White Pine(Michigan) 1 °ff«^'«tump 6,000 to 7,000 lbs. 

(out of water 7,000 to 8,000 lbs. 

White Pine (Pennsylvania), bark off. 5,000 to 6,000 lbs. 

Hemlock (Pennsylvania), bark off. 6,000 to 7,000 lbs. 

Four acres of water are required to store 1,000,000 feet of logs. 
Weight of one cord of seasoned wood, 128 cubic feet per cord. 

Hickory or Sugar Maple 4, 500 lbs. 

White Oak 3,850 lbs. 

Beech, Red Oak or Black Oak 3,250 lbs. 

Poplar, Chestnut, or Elm 2,350 lbs. 

Pine (White or Norway) 2, 000 lbs. 

Hemlock Bark, dry (1 cord bark got from 1,500 ft. logs). 2,200 lbs. 



MENSURATION. 



249 



Mensuration. 

To find the area of a parallelogram. 

Rule: Multiply the length by the perpendicular height, and the product 
will be the area. 

To find the area of a triangle. 

Rule: Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and half the pro- 
duct will be the area. 

To find the area of a triangle whose three sides only are given. 

Rule: From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side severally. 
Multiplj^ the half sum and the three remainders continually together, and 
the square root of the product will be the area required. 

An\' two sides of a right angled triangle being given to find the third 
side. 

1. When the two legs are given to find the hypothenuse. 

Rule: Add the square of one of the legs to the square of the other, and 
the square root of the sum will be equal to the hj^pothenuse. 

2. When the hypothenuse and one of the legs are given to find the 
other leg. 

Rule: From the square of the hypothenuse take the square of the given 
leg, and the square root of the remainder will be equal to the other leg. 

To find the area of a trapezium. 

Rule: Multiply the diagonal by the sum of the two perpendiculars 
falling upon it from the opposite angles, and half the product will be the 
area. 

To find the area of a trapezoid, two of whose opposite sides are 
parallel. 

Rule: Multiply the sum of the parallel sides bj-- the perpendicular dis- 
tance between them, and half the product will be the area. 

To £nd the area of a regular polygon. 

Rule: Multiph^ half the perimeter of the figure by the perpendicular 
falling from its center upon one of the sides, and the product will be the 
area. 

Note: The perimeter of any figure is the sum of all its sides. 

To find the area of a regular polygon, when the sides only are given. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the .sides of the polygon bj' the number 
standing opposite to its name in the following table, and the product will 
be the area. 



NO. OF 






SIDES. 


NAME. 


MULTIPLIERS. 


3 


Trigon. 


0.433013— 


4 


Tetragon. 


1.000000+ 


5 


Pentagon. 


1.720477+ 


6 


Hexagon. 


2.598076+ 


7 


Heptagon. 


3.633912+ 


8 


Octagon. 


4.828427+ 


9 


Nonagon. 


6.181824+ 


10 


Decagon. 


7.694209— 


11 


Undecagon. 


9.365640— 


12 


Duodecagon. 


11.196152+ 



250 MENSURATION. 



The diameter of a circle being given, to £nd the circumference. 

Rule: Multiply the diameter by 3.1416, and the product will be the 
circumference. 

The circumference of a circle being given, to find the diameter. 

Rule: Divide the circumference by 3.1416, and the quotient will be the 
diameter. 

7'o find the length of any arc of a circle. 

Rule: To 15 times the square of the chord, add 33 times the square of 
the versed sine, and reserve the number. 

To the square of the chord, add 4 times the square of the versed sine, 
and the square root of the sum will be twice the chord of half the arc. 

Multiply twice the chord of half the arc by 10 times the square of the 
versed sine, divide the product by the reserved number, and add the quo- 
tient to twice the chord of half the arc: The sum will be the length of the 
arc very nearly. 

To find the area of a circle. 

Rule: Multiply half the circumference by half the diameter, and the 
product will be the area. 

Or. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product 
will be the area. 

Or. Multiply the square of the circumference by .07958, and the prod- 
uct will be the area. 

To find the area of a sector. 

Rule: Find the length of the arc, by preceding rule, then multiply the 
radius by the length of the arc of the sector, and half the product will be 
the area. 

Or. As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of a sector, so is the area of the 
whole circle, whose radius is equal to that of the sector, to the area of the 
sector required. 

To find the area of a segment of a circle. 

Rule: 

1. Find the area of the sector, having the same arc with the seg- 
ment, by the last problem, 

2. Find the area of the triangle formed by the chord of the segment, 
find the radii of the sector. 

3. Then the sum, or difference, of these areas, according as the seg- 
ment is greater or less than a semicircle, will be the area required. 

To find the area of the space included between the circumference of two 
concentric circles. 

Rule: The difi'erence between the areas of the two circles will be the 
area of the ring, or space sought 

Or. Multiply the sum of diameters by their difference, and this product 
again by .7854, and it will give the area required. 

To find the circumference of an ellipse, the transverse and conjugate 
diameters being known. 

Rule: Multiply the square root of half the sum of the squares of the 
two diameters by 3.1416, and the product will be the circumference 
nearly. 

To find the area of an ellipse, the transverse and conjugate diameters 
being given. 

Rule: Multiply the transverse diameter by the conjugate, and the 
product again by .7854 and the result will be the area. 



MENSURATION. 251 



To find the area of a parabola, its base and height being given. 
Rule: Multiply- the base b3^ the height, and % of the product will be the 
area required 

To find the area of a frustrum of a parabola. 

Rule: Divide the difference of the cubes of the two ends of the frust- 
rum by the difference of their squares, and this quotient multiplied by % of 
the altitude will give the area required. 

To find the solidity of a cube, the height of one of its sides being given. 

Rule: Multiply the side of the cube by itself, and that product again 
by the side, and it will give the solidity required. 

To find the solidity of a prism. 

Rule: Multiply the area of the base into the perpendicular height of the 
prism, and the product will be the solidity. 

To find the convex surface of a cylinder. 

Rule: Multiply the periphery or circumference of the base by the height 
of the cylinder, and the product will be theconvex surface required. 

To find the solidity of a C3'linder. 

Rule: Multiply the area of the base by the perpendicular height of the 
cylinder, and the product will be the solidity. 

To find the convex surface of a right cone. 

Rule: Multiply the circumference of the base by the slant height, and 
half the product w^ill be the surface required. 

To find the convex surface of the frustrum of a right cone. 

Rule: Multiply the sum of the perimeters of the two ends by the 
slant height of the frustrum, and half the product will be the surface re- 
quired . 

To find the solidity of a cone or pyramid. 

Rule: Multiply the area of the base by one-third of the perpendic- 
ular height of the cone or pyramid, and the product will be the solidity. 

To find the solidity of a frustrum of a cone or pyramid, the diameter of 
the two ends and the height being given. 

Rule: Add together the square of the diameter of the greater end, 
the square of the diameter of the less end, and the product of the two 
diameters; multipW the sum by .7854, and the product by the height; Va of 
the last product will be the solidity-. 

To find the solidity of the frustrum of a pyramid whose sides are regular 
polygons. 

Rule: Add together the square of a side of the greater end,the square of 
a side of the less end, and the product of these twosides; multiply the sum by 
the proper number in Table of Polygons, and the product bj^ the height; % 
of the last product will be the soliditv- 

To find the solidity of the frustrum of a pyramid when the ends are not 
regular polygons. 

Rule: Add together the areas of the two ends and the square root of 
their product; multiply the sum bj^ the height, and 1/3 of the product will be 
the solidit3'. 

To find the sohdity of a wedge. 



252 MENSURATION. 



Rule: Add twice the length of the base to the length of the edge, and 
reserve the number. 

Multiply the height of the wedge by the breadth of the base, and this 
product b\^ the reserved number; I of the last product will be the solidity. 

To find the solidit3' of a prismoid. 

Rule: To the sum of the areas of the two ends add four times the area 
of a section parallel to and equally distant from both ends, and this last 
sura multiplied by ^ of the height will give the solidity. 

To find the convex surface of a sphere. 

Rule: Multiph^ the diameter of the sphere b\^ its circumference, and the 
product will be the convex superficies required. 

To find the solidity- of a sphere or globe. 

Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, and the product will 
be the solidity. 

To find the solidity of the segment of a sphere. 

Rule: To three times the square of the radius of its base add the square 
of its height; and this sum multiplied by the height, and the product again 
by .5236, will give the soHdit3'. 

To find the solidit\^ of the frustrum of a sphere. 

Rule: To the sum of the squares of the radii of the two ends, add one- 
third of the square of their distance,or of the breadth of the zone, and this sum 
multiplied bj^ the said breadth, and the product again b3^ 1 5708, will give 
the solidity. 

To find the solidity of a spheroid. 

Rule: Multiply the square of the revolving axe bj^ the fixed axe, and 
this product again by .5236, and it will give the solidity" required. 

Note: .5236 is equal to ^ of 3.14-16. 

To find the solidity of the middle frustrum of a spheroid, its length, the 
middle diameter, and that of either of the ends, being given. 

When the ends are circular, or parallel to the revolving axis: 

Rule: To twice the square of the middle diameter add the square of the 
diameter of either of the ends, and this sum multiplied bj-^ the length of the 
frustrum, and the product again b\^ .2618, will give the solidity. 

Note: .2618 equals ^2 of 3.1416. 

To find the solidity- of a tetraedron. 

Rule: Multiply ^^ of the cube of the linear side by the square root of 2, 
and the product wnll be the solidit\\ 

To find the solidity of an octaedron. 

Rule: Multiply 3i3 of the cube of the linear side b\' the square root of 2, 
and the product will be the solidity. 

To find the solidity of a dodecaedron. 

Rule: To 21 times the square root of 5 add 47, and divide the sum by 
40; then the square root of the quotient being multiplied by 5 times the 
cube of the linear side will give the solidity required. 



MENSURATION. 



253 



Table. 

Surface and Solidities of the Regular Bodies, 



NO. OF 
SIDES. 


NAMES. 


SURFACES. 


SOLIDITIES. 


4 

6 

8 
12 
20 


Tetraedron 

Hexaedron 

Octaedron 

Dodecaedron 

Icosaedron 


1.73205 
6.00000 
3.46410 
20.64578 
8.66025 


0.11785 
1.00000 
0.47140 
7.66312 
2.18169 



The superficies and solidit\' of any of the five regular bodies may be 
found as follows: 

Rule: Multiply the above tabular area by the square of the linear edge, 
and the product will be the superficies. 

Or: Multiply the tabular solidity by the cube of the linear edge, and 
the product will be the solidity. 

To find the convex superficies of a cylindric ring. 

Rule: To the thickness of the ring add the inner diameter, and this sum 
being multiplied by the thickness, and the product again by 9.8696, will 
give the superficies required. 

To find the solidity of a cylindric ring. 

Rule: 

To the thickness of the ring add the inner diameter, and this sum 
being multiplied by the square of half the thickness, and the product again 
by 9.8696, will give the solidity. 

Properties of the Circle. 

Diameter X 3.14159 = circumference. 

" X .8862 = side of an equal square. 

" X .7071 = side of an inscribed square. 

Diameter ^ x .7854 = area of circle. 
Radius X 6.28318 := circumference. 
Circumference -^ 3. 14159 = diameter. 

Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square = side of square X 
1.2732. 

Length of arc of a circle = the number of degrees X diameter X 
008727. 

Circumference of a circle whose diameter is 1 =^ 3.14159265-j-. 
The circle contains a greater area than any plane figure, bounded by 
an equal perimeter or outline. 

The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters. 
Any circle whose diameter is double that of another circle contains four 
times the area of the other. 

Area of a circle is equal to the area of a triangle whose base equals the 
circumference, and perpendicular equals the radius. 



254 MENSURATION. 



Diameter X .8862 = side of an equal square. 

Circumference X .2821 = " 

Diameter X.7071= " " the inscribed square. 

Circumference X .2251 = " " " 
Area X .6366= " " " 

Side of a square X 1.4142 = diameter of its circumscribed circle. 
" " " X 4.443 = circumference of its circumscribed circle. 
" " " X 1.128 = diameter of an equal circle. 
" " X 3.545 = circumference of an equal circle. 
The circle is regarded as composed of an infinite number of triangles 
whose common altitude is the radius, and the sum of whose bases is the 
circumference. 

Hence, the area = Y^ the sum of bases multiplied by the altitude; or, 
Area of circle = V2 circumference X radius. 
Area of circle = ^ circumference X diameter. 
The perimeter of a polygon of 1536 sides equals 6.28318092. 
The perimeter of a polygon of 3072 sides equals 6.28318420. 
If the distance from center to vertices be taken % instead of 1, the re- 
sults will be 3.141590 + and 3.141592 +. Carried to 18 decimal places 
3.141592653589793238. 

To find the size of a tank to hold a certain number of gallons. 
Rule: Multiply the required number of gallons by 231. Reduce this 
product to cubic feet, by dividing by 1728. Extract the cube root of the 
quotient, and the result will be the length and breadth of one side, when the 
tank is in the form of a cube. 

To find the weight of a safety valve hall, when scales are not handy. 
Rule: Multiply the diameter of the ball into itself twice, and divide the 
product by 1377; this will give the weight ver3' nearly. 

To find the largest square that can be cut from a circular sheet of given 
size. 

Rule: Multiply the diameter b3' 0.7071, and the product will be the 
side of the square. 

To find the cubic contents of a tapering vessel. 

Rule: Add together the square of the top and bottom diameter. Add 
to this the product of one diameter, multiplied by the other, and multiply 
the sum total by .7854, and this product by one-third of the height of the 
vessel; the result will give the contents in cubic inches or feet, as the dimen- 
sions may be given. 
Example: 

What is the capacity, in cubic inches, of a tank 60 inches diameter at 
the top, 50 inches diameter at the bottom, and 60 inches high? 

60 X 60 = 3600 
50 X 50 = 2500 
60 X 50 = 3000 



9100 
9100 X .7854 = 7147.1400 

7147.1400 X 20 = 142942.8000 cubic inches. Answer. 
And 142942.8000 



231 



619 gallons nearly. 



METRIC SYSTEM. . 255 



METRIC SYSTEM OF I^ENGTHS. 



One Millimeter = 0.001 Meter = 0.039 inches, 

One Centimeter = 0.01 " = 0.393 " 

One Decimeter = 0.1 " = 3.937 

One Meter =1 " = 39.37 " 

One Decameter = 10 " = 393.7 

OneHectometer= 100 " = 328 feet. 

One Kilometer = 1000 " = 3280 " 

One Minameter= 10000 " = 6.2137 miles. 

The Meter is the 10,000,000 part of the distance on the earth's surface 

from the equator to either pole, or 39.37079 inches. 

The Kilometer is commonly used for measuring long distances, and is 

about ^ of a mile (.62135 mile). 

Comparative Table of French and United States Measures. 

MEASURES. NO. 

One gramme = grains , 15.433 

One kilogramme = pounds avoirdupois , 2.2047 

One tonne = tons of 2240 lbs 0.9843 

One tonne = tons of 2000 lbs 1.1024 

One millimetre = inch 0.0394 

One metre = feet 3.2807 

One kilometre = mile 0.6213 

One square millimetre = square inch 00155 

One square metre = square feet 10 763 

One are (100 square metres) = acres 0.02471 

One square kilometre = square mile 0.3861 

One cubic centimetre = cubic inch 0.0610 

One cubic metre or stere = cubic feet 35.3105 

One cubic metre = cubic yards 1 3078 

One litre (one cubic decimetre) = cubic inches 61.017 

One litre = quarts, dry measure 0.908 

One litre =; quarts, liquid or wine measure 1.0566 

One kilogrammetre = foot poimds 7.2331 

One kilogramme per metre = pounds per foot 0.6720 

One kilogramme per square millimetre = pounds per square inch 1422 

One kilogramme per square metre =: pounds per square foot 0.2048 

One kilogramme per cubic metre = pounds per cubic foot 0.0624 

One degree centigrade = degrees Fahrenheit 1.8 



256 



MEASURES— METALS. 



Comparative Table of United States and French Measures. 

MEASURES. NO. 

One grain = gramme 0.0648 

One pound avoirdupois = kilogramme 0.4536 

One ton of 2240 lbs = tonnes 1.0160 

Onetonof2000 1bs=tonne 0.9071 

Oneincli = millimetres 25.400 

One foot = metre 0.3048 

One mile = kilometres 1.6094 

One square inch = square millimetres 645.2 

One square foot = square metre 0.09291 

One acre = are (100 square metres) 40.47 

One square mile = square kilometres 2.590 

One cubic inch = cubic centimetres 16.39 

One cubic foot = cubic metre 0.02832 

One cubic yard = cubic metre 0.7646 

One quart dry measure = litres 1.101 

One quart Hquid or wine measure = htre 0.9465 

One foot pound = kilogrammetre 0.1383 

One pound per foot = kilogrammes per metre 1.488 

One thousand pounds per square inch = kilogramme per square 

millimetre 0. 703 

One pound per square foot = kilogrammes per square metre 4.882 

One pound per cubic foot = kilogrammes per cubic metre 16.02 

One degree Fahrenheit = degree centigrade 0.5556 

In Relative Malleability, the I/eading Metals Run in the Follow- 
ing Order. 

Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Platinum, Lead, Zinc, Iron. 



Copper 1.00 

Silver 98 

Gold 1.13 

Iron 5.63 

Lead 10.76 

Mercury 50.00 

Palladium 5.50 

Platinum 6.78 



Specific Resistances of Metalsl 

Tin Wire 6.80 

Zinc Wire 3.70 

Brass Wire 3.88 

German Silver Wire 11.30 

Nickel Wire 7.70 

Calcium Wire 2.61 

Aluminium Wire 1.75 



The metal Aluminum was discovered by F. Wohler in 1827. 
Arsenic was discovered by Schroder in 1694. 



•ax 


METALS. 


'jai 


Conductivity and Non- Conductivity. 


1 Dry Air (Worst) 


10 Dry Paper 


19 Lead. 


2 Paraffine. 


11 Porcelain. 


20 Tin. 


3 Hard Rubber. 


12 Dry Wood. 


21 Iron. 


4 Shellac. 


13 Dry Ice. 


22 Platinum. 


5 India Rubber. 


14 Water. 


23 Zinc. 


6 Gutta Percha. 


15 Saline Solutions. 


24 Gold. 


7 Sulphur. 


16 Acids. 


25 Copper. 


8 Glass. 


17 Charcoal or Coke. 


26 Silver. 


9 Silk. 


18 Mercury. 





Weight of a Square Foot of Cast and Wrought Iron, Copper 

I<ead, Brass and ^inc. 

From ,V to 1 inch in thickness. 



Thickness. 


Cast Iron. 


Wrought 
Iron. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


Brass. 


Ziuc. 


Inch. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


I'e 


2.346 


2.517 


2.89 


3.691 


2.675 


2.34 


Vs 


4.693 


5.035 


^.781 


7.382 


5 35 


4.68 


^ 


7.039 


7.552 


8.672 


11.074 


8.025 


7 02 


M 


9.386 


10.07 


11.562 


14.765 


10.7 


9.36 


i% 


11.733 


12.588 


14.453 


18.456 


13.375 


11.7 


% 


14.079 


15.106 


17.344 


22.148 


16.05 


14.04 


1^6 


16.426 


17.623 


20.234 


25.839 


18.725 


16.34 


IZ 


18.773 


20.141 


23.125 


29.53 


21.4 


18.72 


9^ 
16 


21.119 


22.659 


26.016 


33.222 


24.075 




% 


23.466 


25.176 


28.906 


36.913 


26.75 




• \h 


25.812 


27.694 


31.797 


40.604 


29.425 




% 


28.159 


30.211 


34.088 


44.296 


32.1 




11 


30.505 


32.729 


37.578 


47.987 






Vs 


32.852 


35.247 


40.469 


51.678 






il 


35.199 


37.764 


43.359 


55.37 






1 


37.545 


40.282 


46.25 


59.061 







Note. — The wrought iron and the copper is that of hard rolled plates. 



Nitro-glycerine was discovered b}^ Nobel, a Swedish chemist. Nitro- 
glycerine is made by mixing sulphuric and nitric acid with sweet glycerine, 
the same that is used by the ladies to prevent chapped hands. Mixing the 
acids and glycerine is where the great danger lies iu the making of nitro- 
glycerine. The mixing tank, or agitator, as it is called by dynamite mak- 
ers, is a large steel tank, filled inside with many coils of lead pipe, through 
which, while the mixing is in progress, a constant flow of ice water is main- 
tained. This flow of ice w^ater is used to keep the temperature of the mix 
below eighty-five degrees, as above that point it would explode, and a hole 
in the ground would mark where the factory had been. The nitro-glycer- 
ine is stored in large earthenware tanks, which are usually sunk in the 
ground to guard against blows or severe concussion. 
17 



258 



MUNTZ METAL— MILLS. 



Weights of Metals. 



Kind of Metal. 



Brass, cast 

Brass,rolled , 

Bronze, gun metal , 

Copper, cast 

Copper, rolled ..., 

Gold, hammered 

Iron, cast, average 

Iron, wrought, average. 

Lead, rolled 

Platinum, rolled 

Silver, cast 

Steel, cast, average 

Steel, wrought 

Tin, average , 

Zinc, cast, average , 

Zinc, rolled 

Lead, cast 

Mercury, 60° 

Brass, w^ire 



Weight of one 


Weight of one 


cubic inch in 


cubic foot in 


pounds. 


pounds. 


0.298 


515. 


0.308 


533. 


0.303 


524. 


0.311 


537. 


0.318 


549. 


0.700 


1210. 


0.257 


444. 


0.278 


480. 


0.412 


712. 


0.798 


1350. 


0.379 


655. 


0.283 


489. 


0.286 


494. 


0.267 


461. 


0.252 


435. 


0.260 


449 


0.4106 


709.5 


0.4911 


848.7 


0.3033 


524. 



Muntij Metal Bars. 

WEIGHTS PER LINEAL FOOT. 





Yellow 


Metal. 




Yellow Metal. 








Size, inches. 






Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


% 


.41 


.50 


1% 


10.18 


12.68 


i% 


.55 


.69 


2 


11.58 


14.35 


1/2 


.72 


.90 


21/8 


13.12 


16.40 


1^6 


.92 


1.15 


21/4 


14.64 


18.20 


% 


1.13 


1.40 


23/8 


16.36 


20.40 


u 


1.37 


1.72 


21/2 


18.08 


22.60 


% 


1.63 


2.05 


2% 


21.88 


27.24 


n 


1.91 


2.40 


3 


26.04 


32.52 


% 


2.22 


2.75 


31/4 


30. 60 


38.20 


^i 


2.54 


3.15 


31/2 


35.48 


44.00 




2.90 


3.65 


33/4 


40.72 


50.72 


IVs 


3.66 


4.55 


4 


46.32 


57.40 


11/4 


4.52 


5.65 


41/4 


52.48 


65.60 


1% 


5.47 


6.81 


41/2 


58.66 


72.80 


11/2 


6.51 


8.13 


43/4 


65.44 


81.60 


1% 


7.65 


9.55 


5 


72.32 


90.40 


1% 


8.87 


11.00 









FI^OUR AND CORN Mllyl^S. 

Roller Corn Mill. 



Size. 


Capacity 


per Hour. 


Power Required. 




Corn meal. 


Mixed Feed. 


6x12 
6x15 
6x18 
9x14 
9x18 
9x24 


12 to 15 bu. 
16 to 20 bu. 
20 to 25 bu. 
30 to 35 bu. 
35 to 45 bu. 
45 to 50 bu. 


25 to 30 bu. 
35 to 40 bu. 
40 to 45 bu. 
60 to 70 bu. 
70 to 85 bu. 
85 to 100 bu. 


4 horse-power. 

5 

6 

7 

8 

10 



MILLS. 



259 



Two Pair High Roller Corn Mill. 





Capacity per Hour. 




Size 






Power Required. 










Meal. 


Feed. 




6x12 


12 to 15 bu. 


25 to 30 bu. 


4 to 6 h.-p. 


6x16 


20 to 25 bu. 


30 to 40 bu. 


6 to 8 " 


7x14 


20 to 25 bu. 


30 to 40 bu. 


7 to 8 " 


7x18 


30 to 50 bu. 


70 to 80 bu. 


7 to 9 " 


7x24 


40 to 60 bu. 


80 to 100 bu. 


10 to 12 " 



Upper Runner Buhr Mill. 



Size of 


Grinding Capacity. 


Size of Pulley 


Speed. 




Stones. 


Corn. Bushel 
per hour. 


Wheat. Bushel 
per hour. 


H.-P. 


30 in. 
36 in. 
42 in. 


20 to 25 
25 to 30 
35 to 40 


10tol2 
14 to 17 
19 to 21 


20x10 
24x10 
30x10 


360 
300 
240 


10 
12 
15 



Under Runner Buhr Mill. 





Grinding Capacity. 


Speed. 




Size of Stones. 


Corn. Bushel 
per hour. 


Size of Pulley. 

14x7 

14x7 

16x7 

16x7 

20x8 

20 X 10 

24 X 10 


H.-Power. 


18 inch. 
20 " 
22 " 
24 " 
26 " 
30 " 
36 " 


8 to 10 
10 to 12 
12 to 15 
15 to 18 
18 to 20 
20 to 25 
25 to 30 


600 
500 
500 
480 
440 
400 
330 


4 
5 
5 
6 
8 
10 
12 



Corn and Wheat Mills. Pulley Driven. 



Size. 


Size of Pulley 
Inches. 


Number of revo- 
lutions per 
minute. 


Requis- 


Capacity 
per hour. 
Bushels. 


Weights. 


Diameter of 
stone. Ins. 


Diam. Face. 


ite h.-p 


18 
20 
22 
24 
26 
28 
30 
36 


lOx 8V2 
12x 8V2 
14x 8V2 
16x 91/2 
16x 91/2 
I8XIOV2 
18x1 OV2 
24x121/2 


400 to 700 
400 to 700 
400 to 700 
350 to 600 
350 to 600 
350 to 500 
350 to 500 
300 to 400 


6 
6 
8 
10 
12 
15 
18 
30 


8 to 12 
10 to 15 
10 to 16 
12 to 20 
15 to 25 
18 to 30 
20 to 40 
40 to 60 


612 
700 
1,050 
1,210 
1,300 
1,450 
1.650 
2,000 



Titanium was discovered by Gregoi, in titanic iron, in 1789, in Corn- 



wall, England 



The metal Thorium was discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
The metal ThalHum was discovered by Crookes in 1861. 



260 



miner's inch. 



Miner's Inch. 

In California the term "miner's inch" is employed to express that quan- 
tity of water which under a given head or pressure, as 4, 7, 9, etc., inches, 
will flow through each square inch of the discharge opening; or, in other 
words,whichwill flow through each square inch of cross-section of a stream 
of water. 

The quantity of water so flowing in a minute, an hour, twenty-four 
hours, etc., is designated "minute inch," "hour inch," "twenty-four hour 
inch," etc., according to the length of time specified. 

Under the head "Water Rights," the laws of California provide: "That 
he (the locator) claims the water there flowing to the extent of [speciiied) 
rnches measured under a 4-inch pressure." 

On these data the value of the statutory miner's inch is as follows: 

CU. FEET. 

For one second, "second inch" 0.02 

For one minute, "minute inch" 1.20 

For one hour, "hour inch" 72.00 

For twenty-four hours, "24-hour inch" 1,728.00 

If a cubic foot be divided by the flow in one second, there will result the 
number of miner's inches equal to the discharge of 1 cubic foot per second. 

Thus 00 2 = 50 statutory miner's inches; that is, 50 statutory miner's 
inches are equal to 1 cubic foot flow per second. 

And 38.74 miner's inches under a 7-inch pressure are equal to 1 cubic 
foot flow per second. See following table. 

Flow of Water Through Vertical Rectangular Openings. 





^ 












^« 








u 




o-t: 








9J 




U c 








a* 






i 




i 


Q 




1-s 


o 







i 




K TO 


^ 


Si 

u 


h- 1 

u 


^% 


o 


^ Eh 


<u 


3 


2 c 




iS 


o 

^ 


^ 


O 




4> 




s 





4. 




Inches. 


Cubic Feet. 


Cubic Feet. 


Cubic Feet. 


Cubic Feet. 


Miner's Ins. 


3 


.0169 


1.014 


60.84 


1,460 


59 18 


4 


.0195 


1.173 


70.42 


1,690 


51.13 


5 


.0218 


1.309 


78.54 


1,885 


45.86 


6 


.0239 


1.434 


86 00 


2,064 


41.85 


7 


.0258 


1.548 


92.92 


2,230 


38.74 


8 


.0276 


1.655 


99.33 


2,384 


36.24 


9 


.0293 


1.755 


105 33 


2,528 


34.17 


10 


.0308 


1.851 


111.04 


2,665 


32.42 


11 


.0323 


1.941 


116 46 


2,795 


30 91 


12 


.0338 


2.028 


121.67 


2,920 


29 59 



MORTALITY. 



261 



Table of Mortality Based 


on American l^xperience. 


AGE, YEARS. 


EXPECTATION OF LIFE. 
YEARS. 


AGE, YEARS. 


EXPECTATION OF LIFE. 
YEARS. 


lo" 


48.72 


53 


18.79 


11 


48.08 


54 


18.69 


12 


47.44 


55 


17.40 


13 


46.82 


56 


16.72 


14 


46.16 


57 


16.05 


15 


45.50 


58 


15.39 


16 


44.85 


59 


14.74 


17 


44.19 


60 


14.09 


18 


43.53 


61 


13.47 


19 


42.87 


62 


12.86 


20 


42.20 


63 


12.26 


21 


41.53 


64 


11.68 


22 


40.85 


65 


11.10 


23 


40.17 


66 


10.54 


24. 


39.49 


67 


10.00 


25 


38.81 


68 


9.48 


26 


38.11 


69 


8.89 


27 


37.43 


70 


8.48 


28 


36.73 


71 


8.00 


29 


36.03 


72 


7.54 


30 


35.33 


73 


7.10 


31 


34.62 


74 


6.68 


32 


33.92 


75 


6.28 


33 


33.21 


76 


5.88 


34 


32.50 


77 


5.48 


35 


31.78 


78 


5.10 


36 


31.07 


79 


4.74 


37 


30.35 


80 


4.38 


38 


29.62 


81 


4.04 


39 


28.90 


82 


3.71 


40 


28.18 


83 


3.30 


41 


27.45 


84 


3.08 


42 


26.72 


85 


2.77 


43 


25.99 


86 


2.47 


44 


25.27 


87 


2.19 


45 


24.54 


88 


1.93 


46 


23.80 


89 


1.69 


47 


23.08 


90 


1.42 


48 


22.36 


91 


1.19 


49 


21.63 


92 


.98 


50 


21.91 


93 


.80 


51 


20.20 


94 


.64 


52 


19.49 


95 


.50 



The first steamboat plied the Hudson in 1807. 

The first sawmaker's anvil was brought to America in 1819. 

The first use of a locomotive in this country was in 1820. 

Kerosene was first used for lighting purposes in 1826. 

The first horse railroad was built in 1826-7. 

The first lucifcr match was made in 1829. 

The first iron steamship was built in 1830. 

The first air pump was made in 1650. 

The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652. 

The first copper cent was coined in New Haven in 1687. 



262 MATERIALS. 

STRJ^NGTH OF MATi^RIAlVS. 

Ultimate Tensile Strength in I^bs. per Square Inch. 

METALS. Average. 

Brass, cast 18,000 

" wire 49,000 

Bronze or gun metal 36,000 

Copper, cast 19,000 

sheet 30,000 

wire 60,000 

Iron, cast, 13,400 to 29,000 16,500 

" wrought, ordinary bar 45,000 

" bar, double refined 50,000 to 54,000 

" boiler plates 48,000 to 56,000 

" wire 70,000 to 100,000 

'* ropes 90,000 

Lead, cast 2,000 

pipe 1,650 

Steel 65,000 to 120,000 

Tin 4,600 

Zinc 3,500 

A bar of wrought iron will expand or contract 151200th of its length 
for each degree of heat; and assuming that the extreme range of tempera- 
ture in this country is 140°, it will expand or contract with this change the 
1080th of its length, which is equivalent to a force of 20,740 lbs., or 9M 
tons per square inch of section. The tensile strength is increased, in from 1 
to 6 reheatings and rollings, from 43,904 to 61,824 lbs., and decreased 
again to 43,904 lbs. in from 6 to 1 2. 

The tensile strength at different temperatures is as follows: 60°, 1;114°, 
1.14; 212°, 1.2; 250°, 1.32; 270°, 1.35; 325°, 1.41; 435°, 1.4. 

TIMBER, SEASONED. 

Ash, American 11,000 to 14,000 

Beech " 15,000 to 18,000 

Box 20,000 

Cedar, American, red 10,300 

Fir or Spruce 10,000 to 13,600 

Hickory, American 12,800 to 18,000 

Mahogany 8,000 to 21,000 

Oak, American, white 18,000 

Pine, American, white, red, and pitch 10,000 

long leaf yellow 12,600 to 19,200 

Poplar 7,000 

Walnut, black 16,000 

Ultimate Resistance to Compression. 

METALS. 

Brass, cast 10,300 

Iron, " 82,000 to 145,000 

' " wrought 36,000 to 40,000 



MATERIALS— METALS. 263 



Timber, Seasoned, Compressed in the Direction of the Grain. 

Ash, American 4,400 to 5,800 

Beech, " 5,800 to 6,900 

Box 10,300 

Cedar, American, red 6,000 

Fir or Spruce 5,100 to 6,800 

Oak, American, white 7,200 to 9,100 

Pine, " " 5,000 to 5.600 

yellow 6,000 

Walnut, black 7,500 

Brick, weak 550 to 800 

strong 1,100 

" fire 1,700 

Brickwork, ordinary, in cement 300 to 450 

best 1,000 

Granite 5,500 to 11,000 

Limestone 4,000 to 11,000 

Sandstone, ordinary 4,000 

Ultimate Resistance to Shearing. 

Iron, cast 27,700 

" wrought, along the fiber 45,000 

Steel 67,000 

To £nd the breaking load in tons for a horizontal hollow wrought 
iron welded tube, supported at both ends and loaded at the center. 

Rule: Multiply the area of metal in square inches by the mean depth of 
tube in inches, and this product by the constant number 1.09. Divide this 
last product by the clear span in feet, the quotient will give the load in tons. 
When the load is evenly distributed over the entire length, it may be twice 
as heavy as a center load. 

THE RARER MBTAI^S AND THEIR COST. 

Aluminum (Metallic) per lb $ 1.00 

Arsenic " " .20 

Barium " " 975.00 

Bismuth " ** 2.40 

Cadmium " ** 1.25 

Calcium " per oz 150.00 

Cerium " " 160.00 

Chromium " per lb 200.00 

Cobalt " " 6.00 

Didj'mium " per oz 160.00 

Erbium " " 140.00 

Gallium " " 3,250.00 

Glucinum " " 250.00 

Indium " *' 158.00 

Iridium " per lb 650.00 

Lanthanum " per oz, 175.00 

Lithium " " 160.00 

Magnesium, per lb i 4.50 

Manganese (Metallic) per lb 1.10 

Molybdenum * * per oz„ 6.00 



264 



METALS. 



Niobium (Metallic) per oz 128.00 

Osmium " per lb 640.00 

Palladium " " 400.00 

Platinum " " 130.00 

Potassium " " 32.00 

Rhodium " " 512. 00 

Ruthenium " per oz 112.00 

Rubidium " " 200.00 

Selenium " " 3.00 

Sodium " per lb 3.00 

Strontium ** per oz 128.00 

Tantallum " " 144.00 

Telurium " " 9.00 

Thallium *' " 3.00 

Titanium " " 32.00 

Thorium " " 272.00 

Tungsten " per lb 1.25 

Vanadium '* per oz 320.00 

Yttrium " " 144.00 

Zirconium " " 240.00 

The price of rarer metals is reduced, as improved methods for their pro- 
duction are discovered from time to time. Thus, aluminum, which a few 
years ago cost $10 per pound, is now quoted at $1 per pound, in lots of 
1,000 pounds. 



Order of Hardness. 


Order of Tenacity. 


MalleabiHty. 


Ductility. 


Platinum. 


Lead, 1. 


Gold. 


Gold. 


Iron. 


Tin, 1.3 


Silver. 


Silver. 


Antimony. 


Gold, 5.6 


Copper. 


Platinum. 


Copper. 


Zinc, 8. 


Platinum. 


Iron. 


Silver. 


Silver, 8.9 


Iron. 


Copper. 


Gold. 


Platinum, 13. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Zinc. 


Copper, 17. 


Zinc. 


Tin. 


Aluminum. 


Iron, 26. 


Lead. 


Lead. 


Tin. 








Silenium. 








Bismuth. 








Lead. 









A metal that expands in cooling is composed of- 
Lead, 9 parts. 
Antimony, 2 parts. 
Bismuth, 1 part. 

Babbit Metal. 
50 pounds of tin. 
2 " " copper. 
4 " " antimony. 



First melt copper, 
all are well mixed. 



Then add antimony, then about Vs of the tin, until 



METALS. 



265 



The following table presents a list of metals arranged according to 
weight — the weight of water being the unit. The table also presents the 
quality of each metal in the most useful particulars. 



to 

f 

< 


-t-» 


Name. 


1 

o 

I 


fa 


U O . 

7u 

i-Ae 

11^57 
645 


II 




1 QQ 2 


22.477 
22.4 
21.46 
19.265 
18.33 
16.54 
13.595 
12.26 
12.1 
11.86 
11.4 
11.256 
10.4 
9.82 
8.94 
8.6 
8 546 
8.5 
8.297 
7.844 
7.5 
7.42 
7.29 
7.14 
6.915 
6.81 
6.728 
6.715 
6.544 
6.3 
6.25 
6.163 
5.9 
5.7 
5.5 
4.15 
4. 

2.583 
2.5 
2.1 
2. 

1.88 
1.743 
1.578 
1.52 
- 1.00 
.9735 


Osmium .. 


.0311 

.0326 

.0324 

.0324 

.0619 

.0334 

.0333 

.0611 

.0588 

.0335 

.0593 

.0314 

.0570 

.0308 

.0952 

.0722 

.0506 

.1069 

.109 

.1138 


3992 
3992 
3592 
2990 
3632 
4352 
—40 
3935 
3935 

529 
3632 

617 
1832 

507 
1990 
3832 

442 
3272 
2912 
2012 






1 QS 


Iridium ... 






197.4 


Platinum 


10.5 
77.9 


.84 


197. 

1 18 S 


Gold 


.532 


Uranium 




1S4 


Tungsten 

Mercury ... 








200 




1.63 




104 4 


Ruthenium .. 


10^3 8 

TiVe 

100 
3h 

yb 
sii 




1 04 4 


Rhodium 






204. 


Thallium 


9.30 




106 6 


Palladium 




207 


Lead 


8.32 
100. 
1.19 
94.4 


85 


108 


Silver 


1.00 


208 


Bismuth 




63 4 


Copper 


736 


92. 


Molybdenum 




112 


Cadmium 


4^8 
809 

yk 

8^9 


22.10 
17.22 
13.11 
16.81 




58. 


Cobalt 

Nickel 

Iron 




58. 




56 


.119 


178 


Thorium 




75 6 


Indium 


.2934 

.0562 

.0722 

.0956 

.100 

.0447 

.0508 

.0456 


176 
442 

3452 
707 

3992 


4*2 
3k 
340 






116. 


Tin 


11.5 


.154 


55. 


Manganese 




65. 


Zinc 


29. 


.190 


52. 


Chromium 




92. 


Cerium 








120.3 


Antimony 


842 


9b 


33.76 




95. 


Didymium 




94. 


Niobium 










128. 


Tellurium 


.0475 
.0448 
.079 


752 


5*6 






93.6 


Lanthanum 








Gallium 


86 








75. 


Arsenic 


-1^8 






51.37 


Vanadium 




3992 

887 

1562 






89.6 


Zirconium 










137. 


Barium 










27.5 


Aluminum 


.2143 


ilo 


19.6 
6.71 




87.5 


Strontium 






94. 


Columbium 










4.7 


Glucinum (Benglium) 
Caesium 


.64 










133. 










24. 


Magnesium 


.250 


1382 

1562 

135 




25.47 
22.14 




40. 


Calcium 




85.4 


Rubidium ... . 










Water 










23. 


Sodium 


.293 


194 




37.42 





266 



METALS— MINERALS. 



o 
< 




Name. 


1 

m 


1 

g-i 


Linear expan- 
sion, 32 to 
212,deg.F. 






39.1 


.875 
.594 


Potassium 


.166 
.9408 


136 
374 




20.83 
19. 




7. 


Lithium 






112.6 


Erbium 






79.4 




Selenium 


.a701 




.h 






50. 




Titanium 








182. 




Tantalum 












61.7 


Yttrium 
















Terbium 

























Mile. 

1 Statute mile equals ^ 5,280 feet. 

1 Geographic mile equals 6,072 " 

1 German short mile equals 6,859 yards. 

1 German long mile equals 10,126 

1 German geographical mile equals 8,100 

1 Irish mile equals 2,240 

1 Swiss mile equals 9,153 

1 Roman mile equals 1,628 

1 Prussian mile equals ... 8,237 

1 Swedish mile equals 11 ,700 

1 Danish mile equals 8,244 



Saw Mills. 

It takes about the same amount of power to cut a foot of lumber in a 
given time, no matter whether it be muley, gang or circular saw. To drive 
a 60 inch saw to cut 2,000 feet per hour, will require 40-horse power and 
in that proportion as the power is reduced. 



Minerals. 

The relative hardness of minerals is shown in the following table, the 
diamond being the hardest of all minerals. 

Degree 1 Talc. 

2 Gypsum. 

3 Calcite. 

4 Fluor Spar. 

5 Apatite. 

6 Feldspar. 

7 Quartz. 

8 , Topaz. 

9 Corundum. 

10 Diamond, 



MAGIC TABLE — MACHINERY. 



267 



Magic Table. 

A person's age may be found thus: Let the person point out the col- 
umns in which their age, at nearest birthday, occurs. Add together the 
figures at head of columns and the sum will be the age sought for. 



1 


2 


4 


8 


16 


32 


3 


3 


5 


9 


17 


33 


5 


6 


6 


10 


18 


34 


7 


7 


7 


11 


19 


35 


9 


10 


12 


12 


20 


36 


11 


11 


13 


13 


21 


37 


13 


14 


14 


14 


22 


38 


15 


15 


15 


15 


23 


39 


17 


18 


20 


24 


24 


40 


19 


19 


21 


25 


25 


41 


21 


22 


22 


26 


26 


42 


23 


23 


23 


27 


27 


43 


25 


26 


28 


28 


28 


44 


27 


27 


29 


29 


29 


45 


29 


30 


30 


30 


30 


46 


31 


31 


31 


31 


31 


47 


33 


34 


36 


40 


48 


48 


35 


35 


37 


41 


49 


49 


37 


38 


38 


42 


50 


50 


39 


39 


39 


43 


51 


51 


41 


42 


44 


44 


52 


52 


43 


43 


45 


45 


53 


53 


45 


46 


46 


46 


54 


54 


47 


47 


47 


47 


55 


55 


49 


50 


52 


56 


56 


56 


51 


51 


53 


57 


57 


57 


53 


54 


54 


58 


58 


58 


55 


55 


55 


59 


59 


59 


57 


58 


60 


60 


60 


60 


59 


59 


61 


61 


61 


61 


61 


62 


62 


62 


62 


62 


63 


63 


63 


63 


63 


63 



Example: Suppose a person's age to be 54 years. We find 54 in the 
second, third, fifth and sixth columns. Then we add together 2, 4, 16 and 
32, which equal 54. 



Horse Power Required for Driving Machinery in Good Order. 

An 18-inch swing engine lathe ^-horse power. 

A 30-inch swing engine lathe ^ 

A 16-inch swing hand lathe i^o 

A 36-inch swing drill 14 

A 16-inch swing drill. ., ^ 

A 6-foot planer M 

A 12-foot planer 1/2 

A 12-inch shaper 14 

Countershaft for each tool ^ 



268 



NUMBERS. 



Useful Numbers for Rapid Approximation. 

Feet X .00019 = miles. 

Yards X .0006 = miles. 

Links X .22 = yards. 

Links X .66 = feet. 

Feet X 1.5 = links. 

Squareinches X .007 = square feet. 

Circular inches X .00546 = square feet. 

Square feet X .111 = square yards. 

Acres X .4840 = square yards. 

Square yards X .0002066 = acres. 

Width in chains X 8. = acres per mile. 

Cube feet X .04 = cube yards. 

Cube inches X .00058 = cube feet. 

U. S. bushels X .0495 = cube yards. 

U. S. bushels X 1.2446 = cube feet. 

U. S. bushels X 2150.42 = cube inches. 

Cube feet X .8036 = U. S. bushels. 

Cube inches X .000466 = U. S. bushels. 

U.S. gallons X .13367 = cube feet. 

U.S. gallons X 231. = cube inches. 

Cube feet X 7.48 = U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical feet X 5.874 = U. S. gallons. 

Cube inches X .004329 = U. S. gallons. 

Cylindrical inches X .0034 = U. S. gallons. 

Lbs X .009 = cwt. 

Lbs X .00045 =tons. 

Cubic foot of water X 62.5 =lbs. avoirdupois. 

Cubic inch of water X .03617 =lbs. avoirdupois. 

Cylindrical foot of water X 49.1 =lbs. avoirdupois. 

Cj'lindrical inch of water X .02842 =lbs. avoirdupois. 

U. S. gallons of water X 13.44 = 1 cwt. 

U. S. gallons of water X 268.8 = 1 ton. 

Cubic feet of water X 1.8 = 1 cwt. 

Cubic feet of water X 35.88 = 1 ton. 

Cylindrical foot of water X 6. = U. S. gallons. 

Column of water, 12 in. high, 1 in. diameter = .341 lbs. 

183,346 circular inches = 1 square foot. 

2,200 cylindrical inches = 1 cubic foot. 

French metres X 3.281 = feet. 

Kilogrammes X 2.205 = avoirdupoislbs. 

Grammes , X .002205 = avoirdupois lbs. 



Tungsten, a metal used in the making of self-hardening steel, and which 
gives it that property, was discovered by the brothers D'Elhujar, eminent 
chemists, in the year 1783. 



NUMBERS. 



269 



Square Roots and Cube Roots of Numbers from .i to 20. 



NO. 


SQ. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 

i 

1 


NO. 


SQ. RT. 

2.098 


C. RT. 

1.639 


NO. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


J 


.01 


.001 


.316 


.464 


.4 


~V 


3.240 


2.189 


.15 


.023 


.003 


.387 


.531 


.5 


2.121 


1.651 


.6 


3.256 


2.197 


.8 


.04 


.008 


.447 


.585 j 


.6 


2.145 


1.663 


.7 


3.271 


2.204 


.25 


.063 


•016 


.500 


.630 1 


7 


2.168 


1.675 


.8 


3.286 


2.211 


.3 


.09 


.027 


.548 


.669 


'.S 


2.191 


1.687 


.9 


3.302 


2.217 


.35 


.123 


.043 


.592 


.705 


.9 


2.214 


1.699 


11.0 


3.317 


2.224 


.4 


.16 


.064 


.633 


.737 


5.0 


2.236 


1.710 , 


.1 


3.332 


2.231 


.45 


.203 


.091 


.671 


.766 


.1 


2.258 


1.721 


.2 


3.347 


2.237 


.5 


.25 


.125 


.707 


.794 


.2 


2.280 


1 733 


.3 


3.362 


2.244 


.55 


.303 


.166 


.742 


.819 t 


.3 


2.302 


1.744 


.4 


3.376 


2.251 


.6 


.36 


.216 


.775 


.843 t 


.4 


2.324 


1.754 


.5 


3.391 


2.257 


.65 


.423 


.275 


.806 


.866 


.5 


2.345 


1.765 


.6 


3.406 


2.264 


.7 


.49 


.343 


.837 


.888 


.6 


2.366 


1.776 


.7 


3.421 


2.270 


.75 


.563 


.422 


.866 


.909 


7 


2.388 


1.786 


'.8 


3.435 


2.277 


.8 


.64 


.512 


.894 


.928 


'.8 


2.408 


1.797 


.9 


3.450 


2.283 


.a5 


.723 


.614 


.922 


.947 


.9 


2.429 


1.807 


12.0 


3.464 


2.289 


.9 


.81 


.729 


.949 


.965 


6.0 


2.450 


1.817 


.1 


3.479 


2.296 


.95 


.9a3 


.8.57 


.975 


.983 


.1 


2.470 


1.827 


.2 


3.493 


2.302 


1. 


1.000 


1,000 


1.000 


1.000 




2.490 


1.837 


.3 


3.507 


2.308 


.05 


1.103 


1.158 


1.025 


1.016 


!3 


2.510 


1.847 


.4 


3.521 


2.315 


1.1 


1.210 


1.331 


1.049 


1.032 


.4 


2.530 


1.857 


.5 


3.536 


2.321 


.15 


1.323 


1.521 


1.072 


1.048 


.5 


2.550 


1.866 


.6 


3.550 


2.327 


1.2 


1.440 


1.728 


1.095 


1.063 


.6 


2.569 


1.876 


.7 


3.564 


2.333 


.25 


1.563 


1.953 


1.118 


1.077 


.7 


2.588 


1.885 


.8 


3.578 


2.339 


1.3 


1.690 


2.197 


1.140 


1.091 , 


.8 


2.608 


1.895 


.9 


3.592 


2.345 


.35 


1.823 


2.460 


1.162 


1.105 ' 


.9 


2.627 


1.904 


13.0 


3.606 


2.351 


1.4 


1.960 


2.744 


1.183 


1.119 


7.0 


2.646 


1.913 


.2 


3.633 


2.363 


.45 


2.103 


3.049 


1.204 


1.132 1 


.1 


2.665 


1.922 


.4 


3.661 


2.375 


1.5 


2.250 


3.375 


1.225 


1.145 : 


.2 


2.683 


1.931 


.6 


3.688 


2.38? 


.55 


2.403 


3.724 


1.245 


1.157 , 


.3 


2.702 


1.940 


.8 


3.715 


2.399 


1.6 


2.560 


4.096 


1.265 


1.170 


.4 


2.720 


1.949 


14.0 


3.742 


2.410 


.65 


2.723 


4.492 


1.285 


1.182 


.5 


2.739 


1.957 


.2 


3.768 


2.422 


1.7 


2.890 


4.913 


1.304 


1.194 • 


.6 


2.757 


1.966 


.4 


3.795 


2.433 


.75 


3.063 


5.359 


1.323 


1.205 


.7 


2.775 


1.975 


.6 


3.821 


2.444 


l.R 


3.240 


5.832 


1.342 


1.216 


.8 


2.793 


1.983 


.8 


3.847 


2.455 


.85 


3.423 


6.332 


1.360 


1.228 


.9 


2.811 


1.992 


15.0 


3.873 


2.466 


1.9 


3.610 


6.859 


1.378 


1.239 


8.0 


2.828 


2.000 


.2 


3.899 


2.477 


.95 


3.803 


7.415 


1.396 


1.249 




2.846 


2.008 


A 


3.924 


2.488 


20 


4.000 


8.000 


1.414 


1.260 


.2 


2.864 


2.017 


.6 


3 950 


2.499 


.1 


4.410 


9.261 


1.449 


1.281 


.3 


2.881 


2.025 


.8 


3.975 


2.509 


2 


4.840 


10.65 


1.483 


1.301 


.4 


2.898 


2.033 


16.0 


4.000 


2.520 


.3 


5.290 


12.17 


1.517 


1.320 


.5 


2.916 


2.041 


.2 


4.025 


2530 


.4 


5.760 


13.82 


1.549 


1.339 


.6 


2.933 


2.049 


.4 


4.050 


2.541 


.5 


6.250 


15.63 


1.581 


1.357 


.7 


2.950 


2.057 


.6 


4.074 


2.551 


.6 


6.760 


17.58 


1.613 


1.375 


.8 


2.967 


2.065 


.8 


4.099 


2.561 


.7 


7.290 


19.68 


1.643 


1.393 


.9 


2.983 


2.072 


17.0 


4.123 


2.571 


.8 


7.840 


21.95 


1.673 


1.409 


9.0 


3.000 


2.080 


.2 


4.147 


2.581 


.9 


8.410 


24.39 


1.703 


1.426 


.1 


3.017 


2.088 


.4 


4.171 


2.591 


3.0 


9.00 


27.00 


1.732 


1.442 


.2 


3.033 


2.095 


.6 


4.195 


2.601 


.1 


9.61 


29.79 


1.761 


1.458 


.3 


.3.050 


2.103 


.8 


4.219 


2.611 


9 


10.24 


32.77 


1.789 


1.474 1 


.4 


.3.066 


2.111 


18.0 


4.243 


2.621 


".3 


10.89 


35.94 


1.817 


1.489 ' 


.5 


3.082 


2.118 


.2 


4.266 


2.630 


.4 


11.56 


39 30 


1.844 


1.504 


.6 


3.098 


2.125 


.4 


4.290 


2.640 


.5 


12.25 


42.88 


1.871 


1.518 


.7 


3.115 


2.133 


.6 


4.313 


2.650 


.6 


12.96 


46.66 


1.897 


1.533 


.8 


3.131 


2.140 


.8 


4.336 


2.659 


.7 


13.69 


50.65 


1.924 


1.547 


.9 


3.146 


2.147 


19.0 


4.359 


2.668 


.8 


14.44 


54.87 


1.949 


1.561 


10.0 


3.162 


2.154 


.2 


4.382 


2.678 


.9 


15.21 


59.32 


1.975 


1.574 


.1 


3.178 


2.162 


.4 


4.405 


2.687 


4.0 


16.00 


64.00 


2.000 


1.587 


.2 


3.194 


2.169 


.6 


4.427 


2.696 


.1 


16.81 


68.92 


2.025 


1.601 


.3 


3.209 


2.177 


.8 


4.4.50 


2.705 


.2 


17.64 


74.09 


2.049 


1.613 


.4 


3.225 


2.183 


20.0 


4.472 


2.714 


.3 


18.49 


79.51 


2.074 


1.626 


I 













The Island of Banca produces the purest tin ore in the world. A re- 
cent analysis of Banca tin ore gave the following results: Tin, 99.961 per 
cent; iron, 00.019; lead, 00.014; copper, 00.006; total, 100. This metal 
was called by the ancients "Kassiteros," from the Greek. 



270 



NUMBERS. 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, and Cube Roots, of 
Numbers from i to looo. 



KO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


0. RT. 


1 


1 


1 


1.0000 


1.0000 


71 


5041 


357911 


8.4261 


4.1408 


2 


4 


8 


1.4142 


1.2599 


72 


5184 


373248 


8.4853 


4.1602 


3 


9 


27 


1.7321 


1.4422 


73 


5329 


389017 


8.5440 


4.1793 


4 


16 


64 


2.0000 


1.5874 


74 


5476 


405224 


8.6023 


4.1983 


5 


25 


125 


2.2361 


1.7100 


75 


5625 


421875 


8.6603 


4.2172 


6 


36 


216 


2.4495 


1.8171 


76 


5766 


438976 


8.7178 


4.2358 


7 


49 


343 


2.6458 


1.9129 


77 


5929 


456533 


8.7750 


4.2543 


8 


64 


512 


2.8284 


2.0000 


78 


6084 


474552 


8.8318 


4.2727 


9 


81 


729 


3.0000 


2.0801 


79 


6241 


493039 


8.8882 


4.2908 


10 


100 


1000 


3.1623 


2.1544 


80 


6400 


512000 


8.9443 


4.3089 


11 


121 


1331 


3.3166 


2.2240 


81 


6561 


531441 


9.0000 


4.3267 


12 


144 


1728 


3.4641 


2.2894 


82 


6724 


551368 


9.0554 


4.3445 


13 


169 


2197 


3.6056 


2.3513 


83 


6889 


571787 


9.1104 


4 3621 


14 


196 


2744 


3.7417 


2.4101 


84 


7056 


592704 


9.1652 


4.3795 


15 


225 


3375 


3.8730 


2.4662 


85 


7225 


614125 


9.2195 


4.3968 


16 


256 


4096 


4.0000 


2.5198 


86 


7396 


636056 


9.2736 


4.4140 


17 


289 


4913 


4.1231 


2.5713 


87 


7569 


658503 


9.3274 


4.4310 


18 


324 


5832 


4.2426 


2.6207 


88 


7744 


681472 


9.3808 


4.4480 


19 


361 


6859 


4.3589 


2.6684 


89 


7921 


704969 


9.4340 


4.4647 


20 


400 


8000 


4.4721 


2.7144 


90 


8100 


729000 


9.4868 


4.4814 


21 


441 


9261 


4.5826 


2.7589 


91 


8281 


753571 


9.5394 


4.4979 


22 


484 


10648 


4.6904 


2.8020 


92 


8464 


778688 


9.5917 


4.5144 


23 


529 


12167 


4.7958 


2.8429 


93 


8649 


804357 


9.6437 


4.5307 


24 


576 


13824 


4.8990 


2.8845 


94 


8836 


830584 


9.69.54 


4.5468 


25 


625 


15625 


5.0000 


2.9240 


95 


9025 


857375 


9.7468 


4.5629 


26 


676 


17576 


5.0990 


2.9625 


96 


9216 


884736 


9.7980 


4.5789 


27 


729 


19683 


5.1962 


3.0000 


97 


9409 


912673 


9.8489 


4.5947 


28 


784 


21952 


5.2915 


3.0366 


98 


9604 


941192 


9.8995 


4.6104 


29 


841 


24389 


5.3852 


3.0723 


99 


9801 


970299 


9.9499 


4.6261 


30 


900 


27000 


5.4772 


3.1072 


100 


10000 


1000000 


10.0000 


4.6416 


31 


961 


29791 


5.5678 


3.1414 


101 


10201 


1030301 


10.0499 


4.6570 


32 


1024 


32768 


5.6569 


3.1748 


102 


10404 


1061208 


10.0995 


4.6723 


33 


1089 


a5937 


5.7446 


3.2075 


103 


10609 


1092727 


10.1489 


4.6875 


34 


1156 


39304 


5.8310 


3.2396 


104 


10816 


1124864 


10.1980 


4.7027 


35 


1225 


42875 


5.9161 


3.2711 


105 


11025 


1157625 


10.2470 


4.7177 


36 


1296 


46656 


6.0000 


3.3019 


106 


11236 


1191016 


10.2957 


4.7326 


37 


1369 


50653 


6.0828 


3.3322 


107 


11449 


1225043 


10.3441 


4.7475 


38 


1444 


54872 


6.1644 


3.3620 


108 


11664 


1259712 


10.3923 


4 7622 


39 


1521 


59319 


6.2450 


3.3912 


109 


11881 


1295029 


10.4403 


4.7769 


40 


1600 


64000 


6.3246 


3.4200 


110 


12100 


1331000 


10.4881 


4.7914 


41 


1681 


68921 


6.4031 


3.4482 


111 


12321 


1367631 


10.5357 


4.8059 


42 


1764 


74088 


6.4807 


3.4760 


112 


12544 


1404928 


10.5830 


4.8203 


43 


1849 


79507 


6.5574 


3 5034 


113 


12769 


1442897 


10.6301 


4.8346 


44 


1936 


85184 


6.6332 


3.5303 


114 


12996 


1481544 


10.6771 


4.8488 


45 


2025 


91125 


6.7082 


3 5569 


115 


13225 


1520875 


10.7238 


4.8629 


46 


2116 


97336 


6.7823 


3.5830 


116 


13456 


1560896 


10.7703 


4.8770 


47 


2209 


103823 


6.8557 


3.6088 


117 


13689 


1601613 


10.8167 


4.8910 


48 


2304 


110592 


6.9282 


3.6342 


118 


13924 


1643032 


10.8628 


4.9049 


49 


2401 


117649 


7.0000 


3.6563 


119 


14161 


1685159 


10.9087 


4.9187 


50 


2500 


125000 


7.0711 


3.6840 


120 


14400 


1728000 


10.9545 


4.9324 


51 


2601 


132651 


7.1414 


3.7084 


121 


14641 


1771561 


11.0000 


4.9461 


52 


2704 


140668 


7.2111 


3.7325 


122 


14884 


1815848 


11.04.54 


4 9.597 


53 


2809 


148877 


7.2801 


3.7563 


123 


15129 


1860867 


11.0905 


4.9732 


54 


2916 


157464 


7.3485 


3.7798 


124 


15376 


1906624 


11.1355 


4.9866 


55 


3025 


166375 


7.4162 


3.8030 


125 


15625 


1953125 


11.1803 


5.0000 


56 


3136 


175616 


7.4833 


3.8259 


126 


15876 


2000376 


11.2250 


5.0133 


57 


3249 


185193 


7.5498 


3.8485 


127 


16129 


2048383 


11.2694 


5.0265 


58 


3364 


195112 


7.6158 


3.8709 


128 


16384 


2097152 


11.3137 


5.0397 


59 


3481 


205379 


7.6811 


3.8930 


129 


16641 


2146689 


11.3578 


5.0528 


60 


3600 


216000 


7.7460 


3 9149 


130 


16900 


2197000 


11.4018 


5.0658 


61 


3721 


226981 


7.8102 


3.9365 


131 


17161 


2248091 


11.4455 


5.0788 


62 


3844 


238328 


7.8740 


3.9579 


132 


17424 


2299968 


11.4891 


5.0916 


93 


3969 


250047 


7.9373 


3.9791 


133 


17689 


2352637 


1 1.5326 


5.1045 


64 


4096 


262144 


8.0000 


4.0000 


134 


17956 


2406104 


11.5758 


5.1172 


65 


4225 


274625 


8.0623 


4.0207 


135 


18225 


2460375 


11.6190 


5.1299 


66 


4366 


287496 


8.1240 


4.0412 


136 


18496 


2515456 


11.6619 


5.1426 


87 


4489 


300764 


8.1854 


4.0615 


137 


18769 


2571353 


11.7047 


5.1551 


68 


4624 


314432 


8.2462 


4.0817 


138 


19044 


2628072 


11.7473 


5.1676 


69 


4761 


328509 


8.3066 


4.1016 


139 


19321 


2685619 


11.7898 


5.1801 


70 


4900 


343000 


8.3666 


4.1213 


140 


19600 


2744000 


11.8322 


5.1995 



NUMBERS. 



271 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to looo— Continued. 



NO. 


SQITARB. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. BT. 


NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


c. RT. 


141 


19881 


2803221 


11.8743 


5.2048 


211 


44521 


9393931 


14.5258 


5.9533 


142 


20164 


2863288 


11.9164 


5.2171 


212 


44944 


9528128 


14.ofi02 


5.9627 


143 


20449 


2924207 


11.9583 


5.2293 


213 


45369 


9663597 


14.5945 


5.9721 


144 


20736 


2985984 


12.0000 


.5.2415 


214 


45796 


9800344 


14.62b7 


5.9814 


145 


21025 


3048625 


12.0416 


5.2536 


215 


46225 


9938375 


14.6629 


5.9907 


146 


21316 


3112136 


12.0830 


5.2656 


216 


46656 


10077696 


14.6969 


6.0000 


147 


21609 


3176523 


12.1244 


5.2776 


217 


47089 


10218313 


14.7309 


6.0092 


148 


21904 


3241792 


12.1655 


5.2896 


218 


47524 


10360232 


14.7648 


6.0185 


149 


22201 


3307949 


12.2066 


.5.3015 


219 


47961 


10503459 


14.7986 


6.0277 


150 


22500 


3375000 


12.2474 


5.3133 


220 


48400 


10648000 


14.8324 


6 0368 


151 


22801 


3442951 


12.2882 


5.3251 


221 


48841 


10793861 


14.8661 


6.0459 


152 


23104 


3511808 


12.3288 


5.3368 


222 


49284 


10941048 


14.8997 


6.0550 


153 


23409 


3581577 


12.3693 


5.3485 


223 


49739 


11089567 


14.9332 


6.0641 


154 


23716 


3652264 


12.4097 


5.3601 


224 


50176 


11239424 


14.9666 


6.0732 


155 


24025 


3723875 


12.4499 


5.3717 


225 


50625 


11390625 


15.0000 


6.0822 


156 


24336 


3796416 


12.4900 


5.3832 


226 


51076 


11543176 


15.0333 


6.0912 


157 


24649 


3869893 


12.5300 


5.3947 


227 


51529 


11697083 


15.0665 


6.1002 


158 


24964 


3944312 


12.5698 


5.4061 


228 


51984 


11852352 


15.0997 


6.1091 


159 


25281 


4019679 


12.6095 


5.4175 


229 


52441 


12008989 


15.1327 


6.1180 


160 


25600 


4096000 


12.6491 


5.4288 


230 


52900 


12167000 


15.165S 


6.1269 


161 , 


25921 


4173281 


12.6886 


5.4401 


231 


53361 


12326391 


15.1987 


6.1358 


162 


26244 


4251528 


12.7279 


5.4514 


232 


53824 


12487168 


15.2312 


6.1446 


163 


26569 


4330747 


12.7671 


5.4626 


233 


54289 


12649337 


15.2643 


6.1534 


164 


26896 


4410944 


12.8062 


5.4737 


234 


54756 


12812904 


15.2971 


6.1622 


165 


27225 


4492125 


12.8452 


5.4848 


235 


552^5 


12977875 


15.3297 


6.1710 


166 


27556 


4574296 


12.8841 


5.4959 


236 


55696 


13144256 


15.3623 


6.1797 


167 


27889 


4657463 


12.9228 


5.5069 


237 


56169 


133120.53 


15.3948 


6.1885 


168 


28224 


4741632 


12.9615 


5.5178 


238 


56644 


13481272 


15.4272 


6.1972 


169 


28561 


4826809 


13.0000 


5.5288 


239 


57121 


13651919 


15.4596 


6.2058 


170 


28900 


4913000 


13.0384 


5.5397 


240 


57600 


13824000 


15.4919 


6.2145 


171 


29241 


5000211 


13.0767 


5.5505 


241 


58081 


13997521 


15. .5242 


6.2231 


172 


29584 


5088448 


13.1149 


5.5613 


242 


58564 


14172488 


1.5.5563 


6.2317 


173 


29929 


5177717 


13.1529 


5.5721 


243 


59049 


14348907 


15.5885 


6.2403 


174 


30276 


5268024 


13.1909 


.5.5828 


244 


59536 


14526784 


15.6205 


6.2488 


175 


30625 


5359375 


13.2288 


5.5934 


245 


60025 


14706125 


15.6525 


6.2573 


176 


30976 


5451776 


13.2665 


5.6041 


246 


60516 


14886936 


15.6844 


6.2658 


177 


31329 


5545233 


13.3041 


5.6147 


247 


61009 


15069223 


15.7162 


6.2743 


178 


31684 


5639752 


13.3417 


5.6252 


248 


61504 


15252992 


15.7480 


6.2828 


179 


32041 


5735339 


13.3791 


5.6357 


249 


62001 


15438249 


15.7797 


6.2912 


180 


32400 


5832000 


13.4164 


5.6462 


250 


62500 


15625000 


15.8114 


6.2969 


181 


32761 


5929741 


13.4536 


5.6567 


251 


63001 


15813251 


15.8430 


6 3080 


182 


33124 


6028568 


13.4907 


5.6671 


252 


63501 


16003008 


15.8745 


6.3164 


183 


33489 


6128487 


13.5277 


5.6774 


253 


64009 


16194277 


15.9060 


6.3247 


184 


33856 


6229504 


13.5647 


5.6877 


254 


64516 


16387064 


15.9374 


6.3330 


185 


34225 


6331625 


13.6015 


5.6980 


255 


65025 


16581375 


16.9687 


6.3413 


186 


34596 


6434856 


13.6382 


5.7083 


256 


65536 


16777216 


16.0000 


6.3496 


187 


34969 


6539203 


13.6748 


5.7185 


257 


66049 


16974593 


16.0312 


6.3.579 


88 


35344 


6644672 


13.7113 


5.7287 


258 


66564 


17173512 


16.0624 


6.3661 


189 


35721 


6751269 


13.7477 


5.7388 


259 


67081 


1V3V3979 


16.0935 


6 3743 


190 


36100 


6859000 


13.7840 


5.7489 


260 


67600 


17.576000 


16.1245 


6.3825 


191 


36481 


6967871 


13.8203 


5.7.590 


261 


68121 


17779581 


16.1555 


6.3907 


192 


36864 


7077888 


13.8564 


5 7690 


262 


68644 


17984728 


16.1864 


6.3988 


193 


37249 


7189057 


13.8924 


5.7790 


263 


69169 


18191447 


16.2173 


6.4070 


194 


37636 


7301384 


13.9284 


5.7890 


264 


69696 


18399744 


16.2481 


6.4151 


195 


38025 


7414875 


13.9642 


5.7989 


265 


70225 


18609625 


16.2788 


6.4232 


196 


38416 


7529536 


14.0000 


5.8088 


266 


70756 


18821096 


16.3095 


6.4312 


197 


38809 


7645373 


14.0357 


.5.8186 


267 


71289 


19034163 


16 3401 


6.4393 


198 


39204 


7762392 


14.0712 


5.8285 


268 


71824 


19248832 


16.3707 


6.4473 


199 


39601 


7880599 


14.1067 


.5.8383 


269 


72361 


19465109 


16.4012 


6.4553 


200 


40000 


8000000 


14.1421 


.5.g480 


270 


72900 


19683000 


16.4317 


6.4633 


201 


40401 


8120601 


14.1774 


5.8578 


271 


73441 


19902511 


16.4621 


6.4713 


202 


40804 


8242408 


14.2127 


5.8675 


272 


73984 


20123648 


16.4924 


6.4792 


203 


41209 


8365427 


14.2478 


5.8771 


273 


74529 


20346417 


16.5227 


6.4872 


204 


41616 


8489664 


14.2829 


5.8868 


274 


75076 


20570824 


16.5529 


6.4951 


205 


42025 


8615125 


14.3178 


5.8964 


275 


75625 


20796875 


16.. 5831 


6.5030 


206 


42436 


8741816 


14.3527 


5.9059 


276 


76176 


21024.576 


16.6132 


6..5108 


207 


42849 


8869743 


14.3875 


5.9155 


277 


76729 


21253933 


16.6433 


6.5187 


208 


43264 


8998912 


14.4222 


5.9250 


278 


77284 


21484952 


16.6733 


6.5265 


209 


43681 


9129329 


14.4568 


5.934* 


279 


77841 


21717639 


16.7033 


6.5.343 


210 


44100 


9361000 


14.4914 


5.9439 


280 


78400 


2195?O00 


16.7332 


6.5421 



272 



NUMBERS. 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to looo— Continued. 



NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


NO. 

351 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


8Q. RT. 


C. RT. 


281 


78961 


22188041 


16.7631 


6.5499 


123201 


43243551 


18.7350 


7.0540 


282 


79524 


22425768 


16.7929 


6.5577 


352 


123904 


43614208 


18.7617 


7.0607 


283 


80089 


22665187 


16.8226 


6.5654 


353 


124609 


43986977 


18.7883 


7.0674 


284 


80656 


22906304 


16.8523 


6.5731 


354 


125316 


44361864 


18.8149 


7.0740 


285 


81225 


23149125 


16.8819 


6.5808 


355 


126025 


44738875 


18.8414 


7.0807 


286 


81796 


83393656 


16.9115 


6.5885 


356 


126736 


45118016 
4549929^ 


18.8680 


7.0873 


287 


82369 


23639903 


16.9411 


6.5962 


357 


127449 


18.8944 


7.0940 


288 


82944 


23887872 


16.9706 


6.6039 


358 


128164 


45882712 


18.9209 


7.1006 


289 


83521 


24137569 


17.0000 


6.6115 


359 


128881 


46268279 


18.9473 


7.1072 


290 


84100 


24389000 


17.0294 


6.6191 


360 


129600 


46656000 


18.9737 


7.1138 


291 


84681 


24642171 


17.0587 


6.C267 


361 


130321 


47045881 


19.0000 


7.1204 


292 


85264 


24897088 


17.0880 


6.6343 


362 


131044 


47437928 


19.0263 


7.1269 


293 


85849 


25153757 


17.1172 


6.6419 


363 


131769 


47832147 


19.0526 


7.1335 


294 


86436 


25412184 


17.1464 


6.6494 


364 


132496 


48228544 


19.0788 


7.1400 


295 


87025 


25672375 


17.1756 


6.6569 


365 


133225 


48627125 


19.1050 


7.1466 


296 


87616 


25934336 


17.2047 


6.6644 


366 


133956 


49027896 


19.1311 


7.1531 


297 


88209 


26198073 


17.2337 


6.6719 


367 


134689 


49430863 


19.1572 


7.1596 


298 


88804 


26463592 


17.2627 


6.6794 


368 


135424 


49836032 


19.1833 


7.1661 


299 


89401 


2673U899 


17.2916 


6.6869 


369 


136161 


50243409 


19.2094 


7.1726 


300 


90000 


27000000 


17 3205 


6.6943 


370 


136900 


506.53000 


19.2354 


7.1791 


301 


90601 


27270901 


17.3494 


6.7018 


371 


137641 


51064811 


19.2614 


7.1855 


302 


91204 


27543608 


17.3781 


6.7092 


372 


138384 


51478848 


19.2873 


7.1920 


303 


91809 


27818127 


17.4069 


6.7166 


373 


139129 


51895117 


19.3132 


7.1984 


304 


92416 


28094464 


17.4356 


6.7240 


374 


139876 


52313624 


19.3391 


7.2048 


305 


93025 


28372625 


17,4642 


6.7313 


375 


140625 


52734375 


19.3649 


7.2112 


306 


93636 


28652616 


17.4929 


6.7387 


376 


141376 


53157376 


19.3907 


7.2177 


307 


94249 


28934443 


17.5214 


6.7460 


377 


142129 


53582633 


19.4165 


7.2240 


308 


94864 


29218112 


17.5499 


6.7533 


378 


142884 


54010152 


19.4422 


7.2304 


309 


95481 


29503629 


17.5784 


6.7606 


379 


143641 


54439939 


19.4679 


7.2368 


310 


96100 


29701000 


17.6068 


6.7679 


380 


144400 


54872000 


19.4936 


7.2432 


311 


96721 


30080231 


17.6352 


6.7752 


381 


145161 


55306341 


19.5192 


7 2495 


312 


97344 


30371328 


17.6635 


6.7824 


382 


145924 


55742968 


19.5448 


7.2558 


318 


97969 


30664297 


17.6918 


6.7897 


383 


146689 


56181887 


19.5704 


7.2622 


314 


98596 


30959144 


17.7200 


6.7969 


384 


147456 


56623104 


19 5959 


7.2685 


315 


99225 


31255875 


17.7482 


6.8041 


385 


148225 


57060625 


19.6214 


7.2748 


316 


99856 


31554496 


17 7764 


6.8113 


386 


148996 


57512456 


19.6469 


7.2811 


317 


100489 


31855013 


17.8045 


6.8185 


387 


149769 


57960603 


19.6723 


7.2874 


318 


101124 


32157432 


17.8326 


6.8256 


388 


150544 


58411072 


19.6977 


7.2936 


319 


101761 


32461759 


17.8606 


6.8328 


389 


151321 


58863869 


19.7231 


7.2999 


320 


102400 


32768000 


17.8885 


6.8399 


390 


152100 


59319000 


19.7484 


7.3061 


321 


103041 


33076161 


17.9165 


6.8470 


391 


152881 


59776471 


19.7737 


7.3124 


322 


103684 


33386248 


17.9444 


6.8541 


392 


153664 


60236288 


19.7990 


7.3186 


323 


104329 


33698267 


17.9722 


6.8612 


393 


154449 


60698457 


19.8242 


7.3248 


S24 


104976 


34012224 


18.0000 


6.8683 


394 


155236 


61162984 


19.8494 


7.3310 


325 


105625 


34328125 


18.0278 


6.8753 


395 


156025 


61629875 


19.8746 


7.3372 


326 


106276 


31645976 


18.0555 


6.8824 


396 


156816 


62099136 


19.8997 


7.3434 


327 


106929 


34965783 


18.0831 


6.8894 


397 


157609 


62570773 


19.9249 


7.3496 


328 


107584 


35287552 


18.1108 


6.8964 


398 


158404 


63044792 


19.9499 


7.3558 


329 


108241 


35611289 


18.1384 


6.9034 


399 


159201 


63521199 


19.9750 


7.3619 


a30 


108900 


35937000 


18.1659 


6.9104 


400 


160000 


64000000 


20.0000 


7 3681 


331 


109561 


36264691 


18.1934 


6.9174 


401 


160801 


64481201 


20.0250 


7.3742 


332 


110224 


36594368 


18.2209 


6.9244 


402 


161604 


64964808 


20.0499 


7.3803 


333 


110889 


36926037 


18.2483 


6.9313 


403 


162409 


65450827 


20.0749 


7.3864 


334 


111556 


37259704 


18.2757 


9.9382 


404 


163216 


65939264 


20.0998 


7.3925 


335 


112225 


37595375 


18.3030 


6.9451 


405 


164025 


66430125 


20.1246 


7.3986 


336 


112896 


37933056 


18.3303 


6.9521 


406 


164836 


66923416 


20.1494 


7.4047 


337 


113569 


38272753 


18.3576 


6.9589 


407 


165649 


67419143 


20.1742 


7.4108 


338 


114244 


38614472 


18.3848 


6.9658 


408 


166464 


67917312 


20.1990 


7.4169 


339 


114921 


38958219 


18.4120 


6.9727 


409 


167281 


68417929 


20.2237 


7.4229 


340 


115600 


39304000 


18.4391 


6.9795 


410 


168100 


68921000 


20 2485 


7.4290 


341 


116281 


39651821 


18.4662 


6.9864 


411 


168921 


69426531 


20.2731 


7.4350 


342 


116964 


40001688 


18.4932 


6.9932 


412 


169744 


69934528 


20.2978 


7.4410 


343 


117649 


40353607 


18.5203 


7.0000 


413 


170569 


70444997 


20.3224 


7.4470 


344 


118336 


40707584 


18.5472 


7.0068 


414 


171396 


70957944 


20.3470 


7.4530 


345 


119025 


41063625 


18.5742 


7.0136 


415 


172225 


71473375 


20.3715 


7.4590 


346 


119716 


41421736 


18.6011 


7.0203 


416 


173056 


71991296 


20.3961 


7.4650 


347 


120409 


41781923 


18.6279 


7.0271 


417 


173889 


72511713 


20.4206 


7.4710 


348 


121104 


42144192 


18.6548 


7.0338 


418 


174724 


73034632 


20.4450 


7.4770 


349 


121801 


42508549 


18.6815 


7.0406 


419 


175561 


73560059 


20.4695 


7.4829 


350 


122500 


42875000 


18.7083 


7.0473 


420 


176400 


74088000 


20.4939 


7.4889 



NUMBERS. 



273 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to zooo.— Continued. 



No. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


No. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


421 


177^41 


74618461 


20.5183 


7.4948 


491 


214081 


118370771 


22,1585 


7.8891 


422 


178084 


75151448 


20.5426 


7.500r 


492 


242064 


119095488 


22.1811 


7.8944 


423 


178929 


75686967 


20.5670 


7.5067 


493 


^3049 


119823157 


22.2036 


7.8998 


424 


179776 


76225024 


20.5913 


7.5126 


494 


244036 


120553784 


22.2261 


7.9051 


425 


180625 


76765625 


20.6155 


7.5185 


495 


.245025 


121287375 


22.2^86 


7.9105 


426 


181476 


77308776 


20.6398 


7.5244 


496 


246016 


122023926 


22.2711 


7.9158 


427 


182329 


77854483 


20.6640 


7.N302 


497 


247009 


122763473 


22.2935 


7.9211 


428 


183184 


78403752 


20.6882 


7.5361 


498 


248004 


123505992 


22.3159 


7.9264 


429 


184041 


78953589 


20.7123 


7.5420 


499 


249001 


124251499 


22.3383 


7.9317 


430 


184900 


79507000 


20.7364 


7.5478 


500 


250000 


125000000 


22.3607 


7.9370 


431 


185761 


80062991 


20.7605 


7.5537 


.501 


251001 


125751501 


22.3830 


7.9423 


432 


186684 


80621568 


20.7846 


7.5595 


502 


252004 


126506008 


22.4054 


7.9476 


433 


187489 


81182737 


20.8087 


7.5654 


503 


253009 


127263527 


22.4277 


7.9528 


434 


188356 


81746504 


20.8327 


7.5712 


504 


254016 


128024064 


22.4499 


7.9581 


435 


189225 


82312875 


20.8567 


7.5770 


505 


255025 


128787625 


22.4722 


7.9634 


436 


190096 


82881856 


20.8806 


7.5888 


506 


256036 


129554216 


22 4944 


7.9686 


437 


190969 


83453453 


20.9045 


7.5886 


507 


257049 


130323843 


22.5117 


7.9739 


438 


191844 


84027672 


20.9284 


7.5944 


508 


258064 


131096512 


22.5389 


7.9791 


439 


192721 


84604519 


20.9523 


7.6001 


509 


259081 


131872229 


22.5610 


7.9843 


440 


193600 


85184000 


20.9762 


7.6059 


510 


260100 


132651000 


22.5838 


7.6896 


441 


194481 


85766121 


21.0000 


7.6117 


511 


261121 


133432831 


22.6053 


7.9948 


442 


195364 


86350888 


21.0238 


7.6134 


512 


262144 


134317728 


22.6274 


8.0000 


443 


196249 


86938307 


21.0476 


7.6232 


513 


263169 


135005697 


22.6495 


8.0052 


444 


197136 


87528384 


21.0713 


7.6289 


514 


264196 


135796744 


22.6716 


8.0104 


445 


198025 


88121125 


21.0950 


7.63.56 


515 


2^5225 


136590875 


22.6936 


8.0156 


446 


198916 


88716536 


21.1187 


7.6403 


516 


266256 


137388096 


22.7156 


8.0208 


447 


199809 


89314623 


21.1424 


7.6460 


517 


267289 


138188413 


22.7376 


8.0260 


448 


200704 


89915392 


21.1660 


7.6517 


518 


263324 


138991832 


22.7596 


8.0311 


449 


201601 


90518849 


21.1896 


7.6574 


519 


269361 


139798359 


22.7816 


8.0363 


450 


202500 


91125000 


81.2132 


7.6631 


520 


270400 


140808000 


22.8035 


8.0415 


451 


203401 


91733851 


21.2368 


7.6688 


521 


271441 


141420761 


22.8254 


8.0466 


452 


204304 


92345408 


21.2603 


7.6744 


523 


272484 


142236648 


22.8473 


8.0517 


453 


205209 


92959677 


81.8838 


7.6801 


523 


273529 


143055667 


22 8692 


8.0569 


454 


206116 


93576664 


21.3073 


7.6857 


524 


274576 


143877834 


22.8910 


8.0620 


455 


207025 


94196375 


21.3.307 


7.6914 


525 


275625 


144703125 


22.9129 


8.0671 


453 


207936 


94818816 


21.a542 


7.6970 


526 


276676 


145531576 


22.9347 


8.0723 


457 


208849 


95443993 


21.3776 


7.7026 


527 


277729 


146363183 


22.9565 


8.0784 


458 


209764 


96071912 


21.4009 


7.7082 


528 


278784 


147197952 


22.9783 


8.0825 


459 


210681 


96702579 


21.4243 


7.7138 


529 


279841 


148035889 


23.0 00 


8.0876 


460 


211600 


97336000 


21.4476 


7.7194 


530 


280900 


148877000 


23.0217 


8.0927 


461 


212521 


97972181 


21.4709 


7.72-50 


531 


281961 


149721291 


23.0434 


8.0978 


462 


213444 


98611128 


21.4942 


7.7306 


532 


283024 


150568768 


23.0651 


8.1028 


463 


214369 


99252847 


21.5174 


7.7362 


533 


284089 


151419436 


23.0868 


8.1079 


464 


215296 


99897344 


21.5407 


7.7418 


534 


285156 


152273304 


23.1084 


8.1130 


465 


216225 


100544625 


21.5639 


7.7473 


535 


286225 


153130375 


23.1301 


8.1180 


466 


217156 


101194696 


21.5870 


7.7529 


536 


287296 


153990656 


23.1.517 


8.1231 


467 


218089 


101847563 


21.6102 


7.7.5&4 


537 


288369 


154854153 


23.1733 


8.1281 


468 


219024 


102503232 


21.6333 


7.7639 


538 


289444 


155720872 


23.1948 


8.1332 


469 


219961 


103161709 


21.6564 


7.7695 


539 


290521 


156690819 


2.3.2164 


8.1382 


470 


220900 


103823000 


21.6795 


7.7750 


540 


291600 


157464000 


23.2379 


8.1433 


471 


221841 


104487111 


21.7025 


7.7805 


541 


292681 


158340421 


23.2.594 


8.1483 


472 


222784 


105154048 


21.7256 


7.7860 


542 


293764 


159220088 


23.2809 


8.1.583 


473 


223729 


105823817 


81.7486 


7.7915 


543 


294849 


160103007 


23.3024 


8.1583 


474 


224676 


106496424 


21.7715 


7.7970 


544 


295936 


160989184 


23.3238 


8.1633 


475 


225625 


107171875 


21.7945 


7.8025 


545 


297025 


161878625 


23.3458 


8.1683 


476 


226576 


107850176 


21.8174 


7.8079 


546 


298116 


162771336 


23.3666 


8.1733 


477 


227529 


108531333 


21.8403 


7.8134 


547 


299209 


163667323 


23.3880 


8.1783 


478 


238484 


109215352 


21.8632 


7.8188 


548 


300304 


164566592 


23.4094 


8.1833 


479 


229441 


109908239 


21.8861 


7.8243 


549 


301401 


165469149 


23.4307 


8.1882 


480 


230400 


110592000 


21.9089 


7.8297 


5.50 


302500 


166375000 


23.4521 


8.1932 


481 


231361 


111284641 


21.9317 


7.83.52 


551 


303601 


167284151 


23 4731 


8.1982 


482 


232324 


111980168 


21.9545 


7.8406 


552 


304704 


168196608 


23.4947 


8.2031 


483 


233289 


112678587 


21.9773 


7.9460 


553 


305809 


169112377 


23.5160 


8.2081 


484 


234256 


lia379904 


22.0000 


7.8514 


554 


306916 


170031464 


23.5372 


8.2130 


485 


2352^5 


114084125 


22.0127 


7.8568 


555 


308025 


170953875 


23.5584 


8.2180 


486 


236196 


114791256 


22.0454 


7.8622 


556 


309136 


171879616 


23.5797 


8.2229 


487 


237169 


115501303 


22.0681 


7.8676 


557 


310249 


172808693 


23.6008 


8.2278 


488 


238144 


116214272 


22.0907 


7.8730 


558 


311364 


173741112 


23.6220 


8.2327 


489 


•239121 


116930169 


22.1ia3 


7.8784 


559 


313481 


174676879 


23.6432 


1 8.2377 


490 


240100 


117649000 


22.1359 


7.8837 


560 


313600 


175616000 


23.6643 


1 8.2426 



18 



274 



NUMBERS. 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to Tj00o~{Continved.) 



NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUfiE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


^-o. 


SQUARfi. 


CUBE. 


SQ. Rf. 


C. Rt. 


561 


314721 


176558481 


23.6854 


8.2475 


631 


398161 


251239591 


25.1197 


8.5772 


562 


315844 


177504328 


23.6065 


8.2524 


632 


399424 


252435968 


25.1396 


8..58lt 


563 


316969 


178453547 


23.7276 


8.2573 


633 


400689 


253636137 


25.1595 


8-5862 


564 


318096 


179406144 


23.7487 


8.2621 


634 


401956 


254840104 


2.5.1794 


8.5907 


565 


319225 


180362125 


23.6697 


8.2670 


635 


403225 


2.56047875 


25.1992 


8.5952 


566 


320356 


181321496 


23.7908 


8.2719 


686 


404496 


257259456 


25.2190 


8.5997 


567 


321489 


182284263 


23.8118 


8.2768 


637 


405769 


258474853 


25.2389 


8.6043 


568 


322624 


183250432 


23.8328 


8.2816 


638 


407044 


259694072 


25.2587 


8.6088 


569 


323761 


184220009 


23.8527 


8.2865 


639 


408321 


260917119 


25.2784 


8.6132 


570 


324900 


185193000 


23.8747 


8.2913 


640 


409600 


262144000 


25.2982 


8.6177 


571 


326041 


186169411 


33.8956 


8.2962 


641 


410881 


263374721 


25.3180 


8.6222 


572 


327184 


187149248 


23.9165 


8.3010 


642 


412164 


264609288 


25.3377 


8.6267 


573 


328329 


188132517 


23.9374 


8.3059 


643 


413449 


265847707 


25.3574 


8.6312 


574 


329466 


189119224 


23.9583 


8.3107 


644 


414736 


267089984 


25.3772 


8.6357 


575 


330625 


190109375 


23.9792 


8.3155 


645 


416025 


268336125 


25.3969 


8.6401 


576 


331776 


191102976 


24.0000 


8.3^3 


646 


417316 


269586136 


25.4165 


8.6446 


577 


332929 


192100033 


24.0208 


8.3251 


647 


418609 


270840023 


25.4362 


8.6490 


578 


334084 


193100552 


24.0416 


8.3300 


648 


419904 


272097792 


25.4558 


8.6535 


579 


335241 


194104539 


24.0624 


8.3348 


649 


421201 


273359449 


25.4755 


8.6579 


580 


336400 


195112000 


24.0832 


8.3396 


650 


422500 


274625000 


25.4951 


8.6624 


581 


337561 


196122941 


24.1039 


8.3443 


651 


423891 


275894451 


25.5147 


8.6668 


582 


338724 


197137368 


24.1247 


8.3491 


652 


425104 


277167808 


25.5343 


8.6713 


583 


339889 


198155287 


24.1454 


8.3539 


653 


426409 


278445077 


25.5539 


8.6757 


584 


341056 


199176704 


24.1661 


8.3587 


654 


427716 


279726264 


25.5734 


8.6801 


585 


342225 


200201625 


24.1868 


8.3634 


655 


429025 


281011375 


25.5930 


8.6845 


586 


343396 


201230056 


24.2074 


8.3682 


656 


430336 


282300416 


25.6125 


8.6890 


587 


344569 


202262003 


24.2281 


8.3730 


657 


431649 


283593393 


25.6320 


8.6934 


588 


345744 


W3297472 


24.2487 


8.3777 


658 


432964 


284890312 


25.5515 


8.6978 


589 


346921 


204336469 


24.2693 


8.2825 


659 


434281 


286191179 


25.6710 


8.7022 


590 


348100 


205379000 


24.2899 


8.3872 


660 


435600 


287496000 


25.6905 


8.7066 


591 


349281 


206426071 


24.3105 


8.3919 


661 


436921 


288804781 


25.7099 


8.7110 


592 


350464 


207474688 


24.3311 


8.3967 


662 


438244 


290117528 


25.7294 


8;7154 


593 


351649 


208527857 


24.3516 


8.4014 


663 


439569 


291434247 


25.7488 


8.7198 


594 


352836 


209584584 


24 3721 


8.4061 


664 


440896 


292754944 


25.7682 


8.7241 


595 


354025 


210644875 


24.3926 


8.4108 


665 


442225 


294079625 


25.7876 


8.7285 


596 


355216 


211708736 


24.4131 


8.4155 


666 


443556 


295408296 


25.8070 


8.7329 


597 


356409 


212776173 


23.4336 


8.4202 


667 


444889 


296740963 


25.8263 


8.7373 


598 


357604 


213847192 


24.4550 


8.4249 


668 


446224 


298077632 


25.8457 


8.7416 


599 


358801 


214921799 


24.4745 


8.4296 


669 


447561 


299418309 


25.8650 


8.7460 


600 


360000 


216000000 


24.4949 


8.4343 


670 


448900 


300763000 


25.b844 


8.7503 


601 


361201 


217081801 


24.5153 


8.4390 


671 


4.50241 


302111711 


25.9037 


8.7547 


602 


362404 


218167208 


24.5357 


8.4437 


672 


451584 


353464448 


25.9230 


8 7590 


603 


363609 


219246227 


24.5561 


8.4484 


673 


452929 


304831217 


25.9422 


8.7634 


604 


364816 


220348864 


24.6764 


8.4530 


674 


454276 


306182024 


25.9615 


8.7677 


605 


366025 


221445125 


24.5967 


8.4577 


675 


456625 


3J7546875 


25.9808 


8.7721 


606 


367236 


222645016 


24.6171 


8.4623 


ere 


456976 


3J89 15776 


26.0000 


8.7764 


607 


368449 


223648543 


24.6372 


8.4670 


677 


458329 


310288733 


26.0192 


8.7807 


608 


369664 


224775712 


24.6577 


8.4716 


678 


459684 


311665752 


26.0384 


8.7850 


609 


370881. 


225866529 


24 6779 


8.4763 


679 


461041 


313046839 


26.0576 


8.7893 


610 


372100 


226981000 


24.6982 


8.4809 


esa 


462400 


314432000 


26 0768 


8.7937 


611 


373321 


228099131 


24.7184 


8.4856 


681 


463761 


315821241 


26.0960 


8.7980 


612 


374544 


229220928 


24.7386 


8.4902 


982 


465124 


317214568 


26.1151 


8.8023 


613 


375769 


230346397 


24.7588 


8.4948 


683 


466489 


318611987 


26.1343 


8.8066 


614 


376996 


231475544 


24.7790 


8.4994 


684 


467856 


320013504 


26.1534 


8.8109 


615 


378225 


232608375 


24.7992 


8.5040 


685 


469225 


321419125 


26.1725 


8.8152 


616 


379456 


233744896 


24.8193 


8.5086 


686 


470596 


322828856 


26.1916 


8.8194 


617 


380689 


234885113 


24.8295 


8.5132 


687 


471969 


324242703 


26.2107 


8.8237 


618 


381924 


236029032 


24.8596 


8.5178 


688 


473344 


335660672 


26.2298 


8.8280 


619 


383161 


237176659 


24.8797 


8.5224 


689 


474721 


327082769 


26.2488 


8.8.323 


620 


384400 


238328000 


24.8998 


8.5270 


690 


476100 


328509000 


26.2679 


8.8366 


621 


385941 


239483061 


24.9199 


8.5316 


691 


477481 


329939371 


26.2869 


8.8408 


622 


386884 


240641848 


24.9399 


8.5362 


692 


478864 


331373888 


26.3059 


8.8451 


623 


388129 


242804367 


24.9600 


8.5408 


693 


480249 


332812557 


26.3249 


8.8493 


624 


389376 


242970624 


24.9800 


8.5453 


694 


481636 


334255384 


26.3439 


8.8536 


625 


390625 


244140625 


25.0000 


8.5499 


695 


483025 


335702375 


26.3629 


8.8578 


626 


391876 


245314376 


25.0200 


8.5544 


696 


484416 


337153536 


26.3818 


8.8621 


627 


393129 


246491883 


25.0409 


8.5590 


697 


485809 


338608873 


26.4008 


8.8663 


628 


394384 


247673152 


25.0599 


8 5635 


698 


487204 


340068392 


26.4197 


8.8706 


629 


395641 


248858189 


25.0799 


8.5681 


699 


488601 


341532099 


26.4386 


8 8748 


630 


396900 


250047000 


25.0998 


8..5726 


700 


490000 


343000000 


26.4575 


8.8790 



NUMBERS. 



275 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, and Cube Roots, of 
Numbers from i to zooo,— Continued. 



NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE, 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


NO. 


— * 

SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


701 


491401 


344472101 


26.4764 


8.8833 


771 


594441 


458314011 


27.7669 


9.1696 


702 


492804 


345948408 


26.4953 


8.8875 


772 


595984 


460099648 


27.7849 


9.1736 


703 


494209 


347428927 


26.5141 


8.8917 


773 


597529 


461889917 


27.8029 


9.1775 


704 


495616 


348913664 


26.5330 


8.8959 


774 


599076 


463684824 


27.8209 


9.1815 


705 


497025 


350402625 


26.5518 


8.9001 


775 


600625 


465484375 


27.8388 


9.18.55 


706 


498436 


351895816 


26.5707 


8.9043 


776 


602176 


467288576 


27.8568 


9.1894 


707 


499849 


353393243 


26.5895 


8.9085 


777 


603729 


469097433 


27.8747 


9.1933 


708 


501264 


354894912 


86.6083 


8.9127 


778 


605284 


470910952 


27.8927 


9.1973 


709 


502681 


356400:^29 


26.6271 


8.9169 


779 


606841 


472729139 


27.9106 


9.2012 


710 


504100 


357911000 


26.6458 


8.9211 


780 


608400 


474552000 


27.9285 


9.2052 


711 


505521 


359425431 


26.6646 


8.9253 


781 


609961 


476379541 


27.9464 


9.2091 


712 


506944 


360944128 


26.6833 


8.9295 


782 


611524 


478211768 


27.9643 


9.2130 


713 


508369 


362467097 


26.7021 


8.9337 


783 


613089 


480048687 


27.9821 


9.2170 


714 


509796 


363994344 


26.7208 


8.9378 


784 


614656 


481890304 


28.0000 


9.2209 


715 


511225 


365525875 


26.7395 


8.9420 


785 


616225 


483736625 


28.0179 


9.2248 


716 


512656 


367061696 


26.7582 


8.9462 


786 


617796 


485587656 


28.0357 


9.2287 


717 


514089 


368601813 


26.7769 


8.9503 


787 


619369 


487443403 


28.0535 


9.2326 


718 


515524 


370146232 


26.7955 


8.9545 


788 


-620944 


489303872 


28.0713 


9 2365 


719 


516961 


371694959 


26.8142 


8.9587 


789 


622581 


491169069 


28.0891 


9.2404 


720 


51*400 


373248000 


26.m9A 


8.9628 


790 


624100 


493039000 


28.1069 


9.2443 


721 


519841 


374805361 


26.8514 


8.9670 


791 


625681 


494913671 


28.1247 


9.2482 


722 


521284 


376367048 


26.8701 


8.9711 


792 


627264 


496793088 


28.1425 


9.2581 


723 


522729 


377933067 


26.8887 


8.9752 


793 


628849 


498677257 


28.1603 


9.2560 


724 


524176 


379503424 


26.9072 


8.9794 


794 


630436 


500566184 


28.1780 


9-2599 


725 


525625 


381078125 


26.9258 


8.9835 


795 


632025 


502459875 


28.1957 


9.2638 


726 


527076 


382657176 


26.9444 


8.9876 


796 


633616 


504358336 


28.2135 


9.2677 


727 


528529 


384240583 


26.9629 


8.9918 


797 


635209 


506261573 


28.2312 


9.2716 


728 


529984 


335828352 


26.9815 


8.9959 


798 


636804 


508169592 


28.2489 


9.2754 


7-4\) 


531441 


387420489 


27.0000 


9.0000 


799 


638401 


510082399 


28.2666 


9.2'/93 


730 


fi32900 


389017000 


27.0185 


9.0041 


800 


640000 


510000000 


28.2843 


9.2832 


731 


534361 


390617891 


27.0370 


9.0082 


801 


641601 


513922401 


28.3019 


9.2870 


73ti 


535824 


392223168 


27.0555 


9.0123 


802 


643204 


515849608 


28.3196 


9.2909 


733 


537289 


393832837 


27.0740 


9.0164 


803 


644809 


517781627 


28.3373 


9.2948 


734 


538756 


395446904 


27.0924 


9.0205 


804 


646416 


519718464 


28.3549 


9.2986 


735 


540225 


397065375 


27.1109 


9.0246 


805 


648025 


521660125 


28.3725 


9.3025 


7:^6 


541696 


398688256 


27.1293 


9.0287 


806 


649636 


523606616 


28.3901 


9.3063 


737 


543169 


400315553 


27.1477 


9.0328 


807 


651249 


525557943 


28.4077 


9.3102 


738 


544644 


401947272 


27.1662 


9.0369 


808 


652864 


527514112 


28.4253 


9.3140 


739 


546181 


403583419 


27.1846 


9.0410 


809 


654481 


529475129 


28.4429 


9.3179 


740 


547600 


405224000 


27.2029 


9.0450 


810 


656100 


531441000 


28.4605 


9.3217 


741 


549081 


406869021 


27.2213 


9.0491 


811 


657721 


533411731 


28.4781 


9.3255 


742 


550564 


408518488 


27.2397 


9.0532 


812 


659344 


535387328 


28.4956 


9.3294 


743 


552049 


410172407 


27.2580 


9.0572 


813 


660969 


537367797 


28.5132 


9.3332 


744 


553536 


411830784 


27.2764 


9.0613 


814 


662596 


539353144 


28.5307 


9.3370 


745 


555025 


413493625 


27.2947 


9.0654 


815 


664225 


541343375 


28.5482 


9.3408 


746 


556516 


415160936 


27.3130 


9.0694 


816 


665856 


543338496 


28,5657 


9.3447 


747 


558009 


416832723 


27.3313 


9.0735 


817 


667489 


545338513 


28.5832 


9.3485 


748 


559504 


418508992 


27.3496 


9.0775 


818 


669124 


547343432 


28.6007 


9.3523 


749 


561001 


420189749 


27.3679 


9.0816 


819 


670761 


549353259 


28.6182 


9.3561 


750 


562500 


421875000 


27.3861 


9.0856 


820 


672400 


551368000 


28 6356 


9.3599 


751 


564001 


423564751 


27.4044 


9.0896 


821 


674041 


553387661 


28.6531 


9.3637 


752 


565504 


425259008 


27.4226 


9.0937 


822 


675684 


555412248 


28.6705 


9.3675 


753 


567009 


42695777? 


27.4408 


9.0977 


823 


677329 


557441767 


28.6880 


9.3713 


754 


568516 


428661064 


27.4591 


9.1017 


824 


678976 


559476224 


28.70.54 


9.3751 


755 


570025 


430368875 


27.4773 


9.1057 


825 


680625 


561515625 


28.7228 


9.3789 


756 


571536 


432081216 


27.4955 


9.1098 


826 


682276 


563559976 


28.7402 


9.3827 


757 


573049 


433798093 


27.5136 


9.1138 


827 


683929 


565609283 


28.7576 


9.3865 


75 S 


574564 


4a55195l2 


27..5318 


9.1178 


828 


685584 


5676635521 


28.7750 


9.3902 


759 


576081 


4.37245479 


27.5500 


9.1218 


829 


687241 


5697227891 


28.7924 


9.3940 


760 


577600 


438976000 


27.5681 


9.1258 


830 


688900 


571787000 


28.8097 


9.3978 


761 


579121 


440711081 


27.5862 


9.1298 


831 


690561 


573856191 


28.8271 


9,4016 


762 


580&44 


442450728 


27.6043 


9.1338 


832 


692224 


575930368! 


28.8444 


9.4053 


763 


582169 


444194947 


27.6225 


9.1378 


833 


693889 


578009537: 


28.8617 


9.4091 


764 


583696 


445943744 


27.6405 


9.1418 


834 


695556 


580093704 


28.8791 


9.4129 


765 


585225 


447697125 


27.6.'386 


9.1458 


835 


697225 


5821828751 


28.8964 


9.4166 


766 


586756 


449455096 


27.6767 


9.1498 


836 


698896 


584277056 


28.9137 


9.4204 


767 


588289 


451217663 


27.6948 


9.1537 


837 


700569 


586376253 


28.9310 


9.4241 


76S 


589824 


452984832 


27.7128 


9.1577 


838 


702244 


588480472 


28.9482 


9.4279 


769 


591361 


454756609 


277308 


9,1617 


839 


703921 


5905897191 


28.9&55 


9.4316 


770 


592900 


456533000 


27 7489 


9.1657 


840 


705600 


5927040001 


28.9828 


9.4354 



276 



NUMBERS. 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to x^ooo— Continued. 



KO. 


SQUABE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. KT. 


C. RT. 


NO. 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


8Q. RT. 


c. RT. 


841 


707281 


594823321 


29.0000 


9.4391 


911 


829921 


756058031 


30.1828 


9.6941 


842 


708961 


596947688 


29.0172 


9.4429 


912 


831744 


758550528 


30.1993 


9.6976 


843 


710649 


599077107 


29.0345 


9.4466 


913 


833569 


761048497 


30.2159 


9.7012 


844 


712336 


601211584 


29.0517 


9.4503 


914 


835396 


763551944 


30.2324 


9.7047 


845 


714025 


603351125 


29.0689 


9 4541 


915 


837225 


766060875 


30.2490 


9.7082 


846 


715716 


605495736 


29.0861 


9.4578 


916 


839056 


768575296 


30.2655 


9.7118 


847 


717400 


607645423 


29.1033 


9.4615 


917 


840889 


771095213 


30.2820 


9.7153 


848 


719104 


609800192 


29.1204 


9.4652 


918 


842721 


773620632 


30.2985 


9.7188 


849 


720801 


611960049 


29.1376 


9.4690 


919 


844561 


776151559 


30.3150 


9.7224 


850 


722500 


614125000 


29.1548 


9.4727 


920 


846400 


778688000 


30.3315 


9.7259 


851 


724201 


616295051 


29.1719 


9.4764 


921 


848241 


781229961 


30.3480 


9.7294 


852 


725904 


618470208 


29.1890 


9.4801 


922 


850084 


783777448 


30.3645 


9.7329 


853 


727609 


620650477 


29 2062 


9.4838 


923 


851929 


786330467 


30.3809 


9.7364 


854 


729316 


622835864 


29 2233 


9.4875 


924 


853776 


788889024 


30.3974 


9.7400 


855 


731025 


625026375 


29.2404 


9.4912 


925 


855625 


791453125 


30.4138 


9.7435 


856 


732(36 


627222016 


29.2575 


9.4949 


926 


857476 


794022776 


30.4302 


9.7470 


857 


734449 


629422793 


29.2746 


9.4986 


927 


859329 


796597983 


30.4467 


9.7505 


858 


736164 


631628712 


29.2916 


9.5023 


928 


861184 


799178752 


30.4631 


9.7540 


859 


737881 


633839779 


29.3087 


9.5060 


929 


863041 


801765089 


30.4795 


9.757b 


860 


739600 


636056000 


29.3258 


9.5097 


930 


864900 


804357000 


30.4959 


9.7610 


861 


741321 


638277381 


29.3428 


9.5134 


931 


866761 


806954491 


30.5123 


9.7645 


862 


743044 


640503928 


29.3598 


9.5171 


932 


868624 


809557568 


30.5287 


9.7680 


863 


744769 


642735647 


29.3769 


9.5207 


933 


870489 


812166237 


30.5450 


9.7715 


864 


746496 


644972544 


29.3939 


9.5244 


934 


872356 


814780504 


30.5614 


9.7750 


865 


748225 


647214625 


29.4109 


9.5281 


935 


874225 


817400375 


30.5778 


9.7785 


866 


749956 


649461896 


29.4279 


9.5317 


936 


876096 


820025856 


30.5941 


9.7829 


867 


751689 


651714363 


29.4449 


9.5354 


937 


877969 


8J2656953 


20.6105 


9.7854 


868 


753524 


653972032 


29.4618 


9.5391 


938 


879844 


825293672 


30.6268 


9.7889 


869 


755161 


656234909 


29.4788 


9.5427 


939 


881721 


827936019 


30.6431 


9.7924 


870 


756900 


658503000 


29.4958 


9.5464 


940 


883600 


830584000 


30.6594 


9.7959 


871 


758641 


660776311 


29.5127 


9.5501 


941 


885J81 


833:^37621 


30 6757 


9.7993 


872 


760384 


663054848 


29.5296 


9.5537 


942 


8S7364 


8358«6888 


30.6920 


9.8028 


873 


762129 


665338617 


29.5466 


9.5574 


943 


889249 


838561807 


30.7083 


9.8063 


874 


763876 


667627624 


29.5635 


9.5610 


944 


891136 


841232384 


30.72^6 


9.81197 


875 


765625 


669921875 


29.5894 


9.5647 


945 


893025 


843908625 


30.7409 


9.81S2 


876 


767376 


672221376 


29.5973 


9.5683 


946 


894916 


846590536 


3(.7571 


9.8167 


877 


769129 


674526133 


29.6142 


9.5719 


947 


896809 


849278123 


30 7734 


9.8201 


878 


770884 


676836152 


29.6311 


9.5756 


948 


898704 


851971392 


30.7!" 96 


9.8236 


879 


772641 


679151439 


29.6479 


9.5792 


949 


900601 


854670349 


30.8058 


9.8270 


880 


774400 


681472000 


29.6648 


9.58<i8 


950 


902500 


857375000 


30.8221 


9.83 6 


881 


776161 


683797842 


29.6816 


9.5865 


951 


904401 


860085351 


30.8383 


9.8339 


8fe2 


777924 


686128968 


29.6985 


9.5901 


952 


906304 


862801408 


30.8545 


9.8374 


883 


779689 


688465387 


29.7153 


9.5937 


953 


908209 


865523177 


30.8707 


9.8408 


884 


781456 


690807104 


29.7321 


9.5973 


954 


910116 


868250664 


30.8b69 


9.8443 


885 


783225 


693154125 


29.7489 


9.6010 


955 


912025 


870983875 


30.9031 


9.8477 


8S6 


784996 


695506456 


29.7658 


9.6046 


956 


913936 


873722816 


30.9192 


9.8511 


887 


786769 


697864103 


29.7825 


9.6082 


957 


915849 


876467493 


30.9354 


9.8546 


8S8 


788544 


700227072 


29.7993 


9.6118 


958 


917764 


879217912 


30 9516 


9.8580 


889 


790321 


702595369 


29.8161 


9.6154 


959 


919681 


881974079 


30.9677 


9.8613 


890 


792100 


704969000 


29.8329 


9.6190 


960 


921600 


884736000 


30.9839 


9.8648 


891 


793881 


707347971 


29.8496 


9.6226 


961 


923521 


887503681 


31.0000 


9.8683 


892 


795664 


709732288 


29.8664 


9.6262 


962 


925444 


890277128 


31.0161 


9.8717 


893 


797449 


712121957 


29.8831 


9.6298 


963 


927369 


893056347 


31.0322 


9.8751 


894 


799236 


714516984 


29.8998 


9.6334 


964 


929296 


895841344 


31.0483 


9.8785 


895 


801025 


716917375 


29.9166 


9.6370 


965 


931225 


898632125 


31.0644 


9.8819 


896 


802816 


719323136 


29.9333 


9.6406 


966 


933156 


901428696 


31.0805 


9.8854 


897 


804609 


721734273 


29.9500 


9.6442 


967 


935089 


904231063 


31.0966 


9.8888 


898 


806404 


724150792 


29.9666 


9.6477 


968 


937024 


907039232 


31.1127 


9.8922 


899 


808201 


726572699 


29.9833 


9.6513 


969 


938961 


909853209 


31.1288 


9.8956 


900 


810000 


729000000 


30.0000 


9.6549 


970 


940900 


912673000 


31 1448 


9.8990 


901 


811801 


731432701 


30.0167 


9.6585 


971 


942841 


915498611 


31.1609 


9.9024 


902 


813604 


733870808 


30.0333 


9.6620 


972 


944784 


918330048 


31.1769 


9.9058 


903 


815409 


736314327 


30.0500 


9.6656 


973 


946729 


921167317 


31.1929 


9.9092 


904 


817216 


738763264 


30.0666 


9.6692 


974 


948676 


924010424 


31.2090 


9.9126 


90") 


819025 


741217625 


30.0832 


9.6727 


975 


9.50625 


926859375 


31.2250 


9.9160 


906 


820836 


743677416 


30.0998 


9.6763 


976 


952576 


929714176 


31.2410 


9.9194 


907 


822649 


746142643 


30.1164 


9.6799 


977 


954529 


932574833 


31.2570 


9.9227 


908 


824464 


748613312 


30.1330 


9.6834 


978 


956484 


935441352 


31.2730 


9.9261 


909 


826281 


751089429 


30.1496 


9.6870 


979 


958441 


938313739 


31.2890 


9.9295 


910 


828100 


753571000 


30.1662 


9.6905 


980 


960400 


941192000 


31.3050 


9.9329 



NUMBERS — NAILS. 



277 



Table of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots and Cube Roots of 
Numbers from i to i,ooo — Continued. 



i 
KO. 


SQUARE. 


CCBH. 


SQ. KT. 


CRT. 


NO. 

991 


SQUARE. 


CUBE. 


SQ. RT. 


C. RT. 


981 ' 


962361 


944076141 


31.3209 


9.9363 


982081 


973242271 


31.4802 


9.9699 


982 


9W.324 


946966168 


31.3369 


9.9396 


992 


9^064 


976191488 


31.4960 


9.9733 


98.S 


066289 


949^62087 


31.3528 


9.9430 


993 


986049 


9791468.57 


31.5119 


9.9766 


984 


968256 


952763904 


31.3688 


9.9464 


994 


988036 


982107784 


31.5278 


9.9S0O 


985 


9T0225 


955671625 


31.3847 


9.9497 


995 


990025 


985074875 


31.5436 


9.9833 


986 


972196 


958.5&5256 


31.4006 


9.9531 


996 


992016 


988047936 


31.5595 


9.9866 


987 


974169 


961504803 


31.4166 


9.9565 


997 


994009 


991026673 


31.5753 


9.99CO 


988 


976144 


964430272 


31.4325 


9.9598 


998 


996004 


994011992 


31.5911 


9.9933 


98!) 


97M121 


967361669 


31.4484 


9.9632 


999 


998001 


997002999 


31.6070 


9.9967 


990 


980100 


970299000 


31.4643 


9.9666 


1000 1 


1000000 


1000000000 


31.6228 


10.0000 



FIRST EIGHT POWERS OF FIRST TEN NUMBERS. 

Powers. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 1 


8 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


4- 


8 


16 


32 


64 


128 


256 


3 


9 


27 


81 


243 


729 


2187 


6561 


4 


16 


64 


256 


1024 


4096 


16384 


65536 


5 


25 


125 


625 


3125 


15625 


78125 


390625 


6 


36 


216 


1206 


7776 


46656 


279936 


1679616 


7 


49 


343 


2401 


168071 


117649 


823543 


5764801 


8 


64 


512 


4096 


32768 


262144 


2097152 


16777216 


9 


81 


729 


6561 


59049 


531441 


4782969 


43046721 


10 


100 


1,000 


10,000 


100,000 


1,000.000 


10,000,000 


100,000,000 



LENGTHS AND NU 


MBI 


:r of cut naii^s to one pound. 


2 

0) 


2 
O 

s 






2 




K 

■< 

e 


i £ 

< c 


i 

s: 


£ 




i 


\ in. 










800 
500 
376 
224 
180 






3£ in 


% m 




















% ; 
IH ' 

2M ' 

2% ' 

3 ' 

4 ^ ' 

r- : 

6U ' 




2d 


800 
464 
296 
224 
168 
120 

88 

70 

60 

48 

36 

24 

17 

13 
9H 

1,..^. 






1100 

720 

523 

410 

268 

188 

146 

130 

102 

76 

62 

54 


1000 
800 
368 


1 










3d 


















4d 


398 












5d 


178 


126" 
98 
75 
65 
55 
40 
27 


130 
96 
82 
68 






6d 


95 
74 
62 
53 
46 
42 
38 
33 
20 


84 
64 
48 
36 
30 
24 
20 
16 






224 




7d 








8d 






128 
110 
91 
71 
54 
40 
33 
27 


74 
60 
52 




9d 








lOd 








28 

■22" 
141/2 

»./. 

6 

5H 
41/2 

2H 




12d 








16d 









20d 








30d 








40d 


















50d 




















60d 









































' 




' 















$^'.. 


















8 • 





5 lbs. of 4-d, or 334 lbs. of 3d. will lay 1000 shingles; 534 lbs. of 3d fine will put 
on 1000 laths, 4 nails to the lath. 



278 



NAILS. 



l4 
CD 

Q 
P 



gift «0 OiC CQ o 



CS t- lO-^ 



oiii^iooa 
aaaava 



g^g 



p . 

Q -aj J 

< ►^ tf 

CQ :^ ^ 



•savaa 

OmHOOlii 



•xoa 

aaanva 



■xoa 

HXOOKS 



aaaava 



•OKIHSIKIJ 



-<}< M •?• — > 



lgS2§g§SS^J§^S22^; 



C'l -* <N C'J ■M t- t^ ec — 00 — i^ ift 

-*(MO5005Oift'<ff00iM'M — — 



5:5 :!: 



•^ ao ecooi — t■-TJ>'^J05i•-lC■ 



Cs .-I 00 — — eci>.iC!M05C^if:-^oc 
CO cs ic ■<*< eo w -H — — 



o JO ■^ooaooO'— i^-M-^oo 

lO — 00 — • — CO i- IC 5} 05 1- Ift •* CO 
CO Ci ifjTfCCi^!— — — 



1 0»C IC O QO 



oo C5 



ift oi ir: ^^ (M 5^ — ' 



c 








to 




•0 




CO 




<M 









») 




•a 




s 




?! 









a 




;^ 




CO 




T. 




V 








be 




c 








X 










A 


o 


-p 


n 


C8 


O 




H 


^ 


>> 


-M 


Cj 





'"' 


-P 


<— 1 


V, 






^ 


cS 




C 


c 


Ti- 






£ 


en 


£ 


X 


O' 


rt 


u 




s 


O 

o 
o 


<4-l 







^ 


r/l 


c 


-a 





c 

3 


4J 





a 



ift o; t- ic cc cv! — ^ ■• 



i l- ?0 05 00 t- 



SgS2Sg§§g§? 



•XOKKOD 

aaanva 



o 00 i> ift -^oiOiOos coco ^' 
t-» ?o ificoocooiOs?DiflT(<ec( 
00 ic eoi<>oi — 



8 ^SSgf?8feSSi5?$55JS3i 

t- -* CO 5<! — « — -H t 






279 



SI5JBS AND WEIGHTS OF HOT PRESSiED SQUARE NUTS. 

The sizes are the usual manufacturers', not the Franklin Institute 
Standard. Both weights and sizes are for the unfinished nut. The weights 
are calculated, one cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 



Size of 
Bolt. 


Weight of 
100 Nuts. 


Rough 
Hole. 


Thickness 
of Nut. 


Side of 
Square. 


Diagonal. 


No. of Nuts 
in 100 lbs. 





1.5 
2.9 
4.9 


7 
3 2 

ft 


h 


% 
% 


.71 

.88 

1.06 


6800 
3480 
2050 




7.7 

8.6 

11.8 


1% 

h 


& 

K 


1 


1.24 
1.24 
1.41 


1290 

1170 

850 


% 
% 


16.7 
17.7 

22.8 


y2 


% 
% 


IK 
IM 


1.59 
1.59 
1.77 


600 
570 
440 


% 
% 
% 
% 


32.3 
39.8 
53. 
63. 


H 

n 
1% 


% 


1% 
IK 

11 


1.94 
2.12 
2.30 
2.47 


310 
251 
190 
159 


1 
1 

1% 


68. 

94. 
103. 
137. 


% 
% 

16 


IK 
IM 


2 

2X 


2.47 
2 83 
2.83 
3.18 


146 

106 

97 

73 


1% 

1% 


145. 

186. 
247. 


if; 


ij€ 

1^ 


2k 
2K 
2% 


3 18 
3.54 
3.89 


69 
54 

41 


■ 1}4 
IK 


319. 
400. 
500. 
620. 


ifi 


1^ 
1% 
1% 
1% 


3 

3k 
3K 
3% 


4.24 
4.60 
4.95 
5.30 


31.3 

24.8 
19 9 
16.2 


2 

2% 


750. 
780. 
930. 


ni 

1% 

2 


2 

2% 

2y^ 


4 
4 

4k 


5.66 
5.66 
6.01 


13.4 

12.8 
10.7 


2% 
23^ 
2% 


960. 
1 1130. 
! 1370. 


2% 
2K 
2h 


2% 
2M 
2% 


4k 
4K 
4% 


6.01 
6.36 
6.72 


10 4 
8.9 
7.3 


3 

3^ 

3K 


1610. 
2110. 
2750. 


2\l 
2f| 

3^ 


3 
3 k 

3^ 


5 

5K 
6 


7.07 
7.78 
8.49 


6.2 
4.7 
3.6 



Meaning cf Terms "Brash," **Foxy," "Doatiness," and *'Doi5y." 

"Brash" is when the wood is porous, of a reddish color, and breaks off 
short, without splinters. It is generally consequent upon the decline of a 
tree from age. "Foxy," is a yellow or red tinge, indicating incipient decay. 
"Doatiness," is a speckled stain, but when the timber is called "Dozy" it is 
understood that dry-rot has commenced; this isclosely allied to "Foxiness." 



280 



NUTS. 



SI^^S AND W15IGHTS OF HOT PRESSED HEXAGON 

NUTS. 
The sizes are the usual manufacturers', not the Franklin Institute 
Standard. Both weights and sizes are for the unfinished nut. The weights 
are calculated, one cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 



Size of 
Bolt. 



1/4 
5 

16 



% 
% 

1 
1 

11/4 
1% 

iy2 

1% 
1% 
1% 

2 

21/8 
21/4 



21/2 

23/4 

3 

31/4 

3V2 



Weight of 
100 nuts. 



1.3 
2.4 
4.1 

6.8 

7.1 

9.8 

14.0 

14.7 
19.1 
22.9 

27.2 
39. 
44. 
50. 

57. 
64. 
96. 

134. 
180. 
235. 

300. 
370. 
460. 

450. 
560. 
560. 

680. 
810. 
980. 

1150. 
1340. 
1580. 



Rough 
Hole. 



li^e 
lr\ 
li^e 

l/e 
-^ le 

iH 

111 
1% 
2 

2M 
2J€ 

2H 

3M 



Thickness 
of Nut. 



1 

IJ^ 
IX 

1% 
IK 
1^ 

1% 
1% 
2 

2 

2M 
2J€ 

2% 
2M 
2^ 

3 

3J^ 

3K 



Short I Long 
Diameter. Diameter. 



1 

IM 



IH 

1% 
IK 
1% 
1% 

IH 
IH 
2 

2X 
2K 
2H 

3 

3^ 
3K 



4 

4J€ 
4K 

4% 
5 



.58 

.72 

.87 

1.01 

1.01 
1.15 
1.30 

1.30 
1.44 
1.44 



59 
73 

88 



1.88 

2.02 
2.02 
2.31 

2 60 
2.89 
3.18 

3.46 
3.75 
4.04 

4.04 
4.33 
4.33 

4.62 
4.91 
5.20 



5 
5 

I 6 



48 
,77 
,06 



No. ofNuts 
in 100 lbs. 

8000 
4170 
2410 
1460 

1410 

1020 

710 

680 
520 
440 

370 
256 
226 

198 

176 
156 
104 

75 
56 
42 

33.4 
26 7 
21.5 

22.4 
18.0 
17.7 

14.7 
12.3 
10.2 

8.7 
7.5 
6.3 



The Metric System of Weights and Measures was first suggested about 
A..D. 1528 by Jean Fernal, physician to Henry II of France. It was pro- 
posed for adoption by Talleyrand to the members of the National Assem- 
bly of France iu 1790, and went into effect January 1st, 1840. 



281 



TABI,]^. 

Sliowing the average number of square and hexagon nuts in a box or 
keg of 200 pounds of the raanufacturers'standard sizes. 





SQUA 


RE NUTS. 






HEXAGON NUTS 




Width 


Thick- ] 
ness. 


Hole. 


No. in 200 
lbs. 


Width. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Hole. 


No. in 200 

lbs. 


y^ 


y^ 


/« 


14.844 


'A 


14 


h 


17,332 


% 


h 


3^ 


7,880 


% 


i% 


,% 


8,964 


% 




h\ 


4,440 


% 


% 


hh 


5,016 


% 


h 


1% 


2,732 


% 


h 


hi 


2,988 


% 


h 


h 


2,450 


% 


y 


h 


2,674 


1 


y. 


h 


1,816 




y 


h 


2,160 


i>^ 


K 


K 


1,390 


IM 


h 


y 


1,445 


iM 


% 


.% 


1,174 


IM 


% 


& 


1,310 


1J4 


% 


h 


898 


rii 


■ % 


N 


1,028 


r% 


% 


u 


662 


iM 


% 


1% 


920 


IH 


% 


M 


538 


ly 


% 


U 


752 


1% 


% 


25 
32 


392 


ly 


% 


U 


510 


IH 


% 




826 


1% 


y 


11 


450 


IH 


1 


% 


304 


1^ 


1 


¥2 


428 


2 


1 


% 


224 


1% 


1 


% 


372 


2 


1^ 


15 


214 


1% 


1^ 


y 


336 


2^4 


1^ 


IS 


152 


2 


IM 


\% 


211 


2% 


IJi 


l/e 


143 


2% 


1% 


Ir^e 


159 


2% 


13€ 


ll^g 


108 


2y 


yy 


^h 


119 


2% 


1% 


Ife 


83 


2% 


1% 


1^ 


88 


3 


1>^ 


ll^6 


65 


3 


\% 


ll\ 


69 


3J€ 


1% 


l/e 


51 


3% 


ly 


u% 


56 


3>^ 


1% 


l,"e 


42 


'sy 


2 


lU 


44 


m 


1% 


lU 


1 22 


sy 


2 


lil 


43 


4 


2 


IM 


! 27 


4 


2 


IB 


29 



Machine Screw Nuts. 

NUMBER. THREADS. 

8 30 and 32 

10 24-30 and 32 

12 20 and 24 

14 20 and 24 

16 16-18 and 20 

18 16 and 18 

20 16 and 18 

22 16 and 18 

24 14 and 16 

26 14 and 16 

28 14 and 16 

30 14 and 16 

Stove Bolt Nuts. 

DIAMETER OF BOLT. THREADS. 

3% 30 

^e 24 

^ 24 

H o. 18 

h 18 

% 18 



282 ORES. 

Relative Valtie of Non-Conductors. 

Wool Felt 1.000 

Mineral Wool, No. 2 832 

Mineral Wool with Tar 715 

Sawdust 680 

Mineral Wool, No. 1 676 

Charcoal 632 

Pinewood, across Fiber 553 

Loam, dry and open 550 

Slacked Lime 480 

Gas-house Carbon 470 

Asbestos 363 

Coal Ashes 345 

Coke, in lumps 277 

Air space, undivided 186 

Measures of Ores, Barth, :^tc. 

13 cubic feet of ordinary gold or silver ore, in mine = 1 ton = 2,000 lbs. 

20 cubic feet of broken quartz = 1 ton = 2,000 lbs. 

In calculating the quantity of ore "in place" in a mine, an allowance is 
generally made for moisture in the ore. determined by the character of the 
ore. 

18 feet of gravel in bank = 1 ton. 

27 cubic feet of gravel when dry =: 1 ton. 

25 cubic feet of sand = 1 ton, 

18 cubic feet of earth in bank = 1 ton. 

27 cubic feet of earth when dry = 1 ton. 

17 cubic ieet of clay = 1 ton. 

44.8 cubic feet bituminous coal when broken down = 1 long ton, 2240 lbs. 
42.3 cubic feet anthracite coal when broken down = 1 long ton, 2240 lbs. 
123 cubic feet of Charcoal = 1 ton, 2240 lbs. 

70.9 cubic feet of Coke = 1 ton, 2240 lbs. 

1 cubic foot of Anthracite Coal = 50 to 55 lbs. 

1 cubic foot of Bituminous Coal = 45 to 55 lbs. 

1 cubic foot Cumberland Coal = 53 lbs. 

1 cubic foot Cannel Coal = 50.3 lbs. 

1 cubic foot Charcoal (Hardwood) = 18.5 lbs. 

] cubic foot Charcoal (Pine) = 18 lbs. 

1 cord of Wood, 4 ft. x 4 ft. x 8 ft , = 128 cubic feet. 

Iron Ores. 

The chief iron ores are the following: Magnetite, containing, when 
purest, over 72 per cent of iron. 

Hematite (with its varieties, "specular iron," "kidney iron," "micaceous 
iron," etc.), containing, when purest, nearly 70 per cent. 

Limonite (with its varieties, "kidney iron" and "bog iron ore"), con- 
taining, when purest, about 60 per cent, 



OILS. 283 

Gothite, containing about 73 per cent Chalybite, with its varieties, 
"spathose iron ore," ''clay band" and "black band," containing, when 
purest, about 48 per cent. Of these, the first two are anhydrous oxides, 
the next two hydrous oxides, and the last a carbonate. 

In addition to these names, iron ores are named from their physical 
characteristics. 

Hard and soft, which names need no explanation. 

Specular, so-called from its bright, shining micaceous look. The term 
micaceous is also sometimes applied to this variety of ore. 

Brown and red hematites, so-called from the color of the ore. 

I/ubricating Oils. 

Mineral oil has no action on zinc and copper, and acts least on brass 
and most on lead. 

Rape oil has no action on brass and tin; acts least on iron and most on 
copper. 

Tallow oil acts least on tin and most on copper. 

Lard oil acts least on zinc and most on copper. 

Sperm oil acts least on brass and most on zinc. 

Iron is least affected by seal oil and most by tallow oil. 

Brass is not affected by rape oil, least by seal oil and most by olive oil. 

Tin is not affected by rape oil, least by olive oil, and most by cotton- 
seed oil. 

The following are used in compounding lubricating oils: 

Lard oil, cotton-seed oil, sperm oil, whale oil, menhaden oil, tallow 
oil, cocoanut oil, neatsfoot oil, horse oil, castor oil, neutral oil, parafline 
oil, animal and mineral gelatine, cylinder stock and axle grease. Alum curds 
are also used to give 'body." 

Neutral oil is a product of petroleum too heavy for illuminating, and 
too light for lubricating purposes. It is used for cutting animal and fish 
oils, also cylinder stock, 

Paraffine oil is a heavier product and a lubricant in itself, and is also 
used for cutting animal oils, and for thinning cylinder stock. 

Cylinder stock is a very heavy product of petroleum, and when pure 
hardens like tallow. 

It has a high fire test, and is the basis of all first-class cylinder oils. Its 
color is greenish. Lard oil decomposes at about 385 degrees, Fahr., and is 
unfit for a cylinder oil on this account. Tallow oil, unless deacidized, is un- 
fit for a cylinder oil. 

The following formulas will be found useful in mixing oils for lubricat- 
ing purposes. 

Heavy Machinery Oil. 

M gal. 25 gravity paraffine oil. 
% gal. best grade cylinder stock. 

Engine Oil. 

V2 gal. best cylinder stock. 

V4, gal. neutral oil. 
^gal. lard oil, 



284 OILS. 



I^ight Machinery Oil. 

^A gal. pure W. S. lard oil. 

3^ gal. 25 gravity paraffine oil. 

Sewing Machines. 

% pure sperm oil. 

yi 25 gravity paraffine oil, or a cheaper oil as follows: 

1/2 neutral oil. 

1/2 pure W. S. lard oil. 

Cylinder Oil. 

Best grade of cylinder stock, cut w^ith 25 gravity paraffine oil, so as to 
make it flow freely. 

Any oil largely composed of cylinder stock will thicken in cold weather, 
and should be cut with 25 gravity paraffine oil, in order to make it flow 
freely from hand oil can. 

None but the following oils are necessary in compounding the best 
lubricating oils but they should be pure and free from all gritty matter. 

Pure sperm oil. 

Pure W. S. lard oil. 

24 or 25 gravity paraffine oil.* 

Best grade of cylinder stock. 

The following are market quotations for best grades of oils used in 
compounding lubricating oils. Prices are for car load lots, and subject to 
fluctuation: 

Sperm, bleached winter ,.,. per gal 81 cents. 

Whale, extra bleached ..,..,, " 58 

Menhaden, extra bleached " 35 

Tallow, city, prime ^| 44 

Neatsfoot, prime • " 75 

Black, 29 gravity, 15 cold test " 9>2 

Cylinder, dark, filtered '' 20 

Paraffine, red, 21 to 22 gravity " ^^^i 

There are several cheaper grades of above oils, and only the very best 
grades are quoted above. 

A lubricating oil should have viscosity sufficient to prevent its running 
off the bearing, but too much viscosity creates friction. 

A heavy "jbodj"— so called in oils, does not always indicate the best 
oil. A "body" can be given the very poorest possible oils for lubricating 
purposes. 

In the distillation of crude petroleum, the classification of the various 
products is usually as follows : 

All above 88° of Baume's hydrometer is called chymogene; from 88° to 
70°, gasoline; from 70° to 50°, naphtha; from 60° to 50°, benzine; from 
50° to 35°, kerosene; from 35° to 28°, lubricating oil. Below 28° come the 
paraffines and cylinder stocks from which lubricating oils are commonly 
made, 



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287 



Wrought Iron Pipe. 







MEASUREMENTS OF SOCKETS 


Nominal inside 


Contents of 


ON 


PIPE. 


diameter 


one foot in length 
in 
Gallons. 






in 
Inches. 


Actual outside di- 
ameter. Inches. 


Length of 
Socket. Inches. 


>^ 


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.60 


.81 


M 


.002 


.78 


1.00 


% 


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.91 


1.10 


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1.10 


1.31 


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1.34 


1.56 


1 


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1.66 


1.75 


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2.00 


1.94 


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2 28 


2.19 


2 


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2.81 


2.31 


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.255 


3.28 


2.70 


3 


.367 


4.02 


3.00 


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4.50 


3.12 


4 


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5.10 


3 12 


4>i 


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5 53 


3.12 


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1.02 


6.25 


3 70 


6 


1.46 


7.34 


3.70 


7 


2.00 


8.34 


4.31 


8 


2.61 


9.44 


4.56 


9 


3.30 


10.47 


5.75 


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6.25 


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5.87 


13.78 


6.25 


13 


6.89 






14 


8.00 






15 


9.18 






16 


10.44 


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17 


11.79 







The oldest work on algebra is that of Diophantus, a Greek writer, who 
flourished as early as the 4th century. It was introduced into Spain by 
the Saracens about A.D. 900. 

It was introduced into Italy by Leonardo de Pisa about A.D. 1202. 
Algebraic signs were invented by Stifelius of Nuremberg, A.D. 1544. 

The introduction of symbols for quantities was made by Francis Vieta 
ofFrance, in A.D. 1590. 

The oldest treatise on arithmetic is by Euclid about 300 years B.C. 
It was introduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales about 600 years B.C. 

Notation by nine digits and zero w^as known in India as early as the 
6th century. This notation was introduced from India into Arabia about 
A.D. 900. The Indian notation was introduced into France by Gerbert 
A.D. 991; into Spain A.D. 1050; into England A D. 1253. The oldest text 
l)ook using the Indian figures, and the decimal system, is that of Avicenna, 
an Arabian physician who lived in Bokhara about A.D. 1000. 



288 



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290 



PIPE. 



Tarred or Asphalted Wrought Iron Steam, Gas and 
Water Pipe. 

BUTT-WELDED. LAP-WELDED. 



Nominal Size 


Nominal Weight 


Nominal Size 


Nominal Weight 


Inside Diameter. 


per Foot. 


Inside Diameter. 


per Foot. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


1/4 


.42 


l!/2 


2.69 


% 


.56 


2 


3.66 


V2 


.85 


2^2 


5.77 


% 


1.12 


3 


7.54 


1 


1.67 


3V2 


9.05 


iy4 


2.25 


4 


10.72 



lyap-Welded Tuyere Pipe, for Coiling Purposes. 



Nominal Size 
Inside Diameter. 


Actual Outside 
Diameter. 


Thickness. 


Nominal Weight 
per Foot. 


Inches. 

1 

11/4 


Inches. 

1.315 
1.66 


Inches. 


2.21 
3.13 



Wrought Iron Stay Bolt Tubes. 



Inside 
Diameter. 


Outside 
Diameter. 


Weight per 
ft., lbs. 


Inside 
Diameter. 


Outside 
Diameter. 


Weight per 
ft., lbs. 


1 


1 


1.70 
2.21 
2.40 
2.61 


1 

n 




3. 

3.10 
3.39 
3.99 



Thickness of Iron Required for Flush Joint Pipe and Tubing. 



SIZE. 


10 


-si 


^1 

to 




Is 


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Oj g 


00 


ooHQ 


■gs. 

OS 


1^" 

III 


Thickness of Iron, inches. . 


u. 


14 


3% 


5% 


1% 


1^5 


U 


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Thickness of Iron, inches. . . 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


% 


Si 


II 


J§ 





PIPE. 



291 



CAST IRON FI,ANG:eD PIP:^, 











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Pounds. 












Inch. 


Inch. 


Lbs. 


Per Sq. 
Inch. 


Feet. 


Inch. 


No. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


3 


^ 


8 


50 


5 


7 


4 


% 


5?i 


3 


t\ 


10 


100 


5 


7 


4 


rs 


5% 


3 


% 


12 


150 


5 


7 


4 


% 


Z% 


4 




12 


40 


6 


8 


4 


% 


eu 


4 


/a 


15 


70 


6 


8 


4 


% 


Q% 


4 


% 


20 


100 


6 


8 


4 


% 


6U 


4 


i 


25 


150 


6 


9 


4 


M 


7H 


4 


30 


200 


6 


9 


4 


% 


7H 


5 




15 


40 


6 


9 


4 




7H 


5 


15 


20 


70 


6 


9 


4 


i 


7H 


5 


% 


25 


100 


6 


9 


5 


% 


71/2 


5 


% 


30 


150 


6 


10 


6 


% 


83i 


5 


5^ 


35 


150 


6 


10 


6 


% 


8M 


6 


^ 


20 


40 


6 


10 


6 


\ 


8% 


6 


i-^s 


25 


70 


6 


10 


6 


M 


8^4 


6 


% 


30 


100 


6 


10 


6 


Va. 


8M 


6 


^2 


35 


125 


6 


11 


6 


% 


9^2 


6 


5Z 


40 


150 


6 


11 


6 


% 


9H 


7 


1^5 


25 


40 


8 


12 


6 


K 


lOH 


7 


% 


35 


70 


8 


12 


6 


% 


101/2 


7 


^/2 


45 


100 


8 


13 


8 


% 


11% 


7 


% 


55 


125 


8 


13 


8 


% 


11% 


8 


i^e 


30 


40 


8 


13 


8 


% 


11% 


8 


% 


40 


70 


8 


13 


8 


% 


11% 


8 


^2 


50 


100 


8 


14 


8 


% 


12^2 


8 


% 


60 


125 


8 


14 


8 


% 


121/2 


10 


/b 


50 


50 


10 


16 


10 


M 


14^ 


10 


1*5 


65 


75 


10 


16 


10 


M 


1414 


10 


^^ 


80 


100 


10 


16 


10 


% 


1434 


10 


^i 


100 


125 


10 


16 


10 


% 


14M 


12 


7 
IB 


65 


50 


10 


18 


12 


% 


16% 


12 


1% 


80 


75 


10 


18 


12 


% 


16% 


12 


\k 


95 


100 


10 


18 


12 


% 


16% 


12 


H 


110 


125 


10 


18 


12 


% 


16% 



One of the best varnishes for smoke-stacks or steam pipes, is good as- 
phaltum dissolved in oil of turpentine. 

Eighty parts of sifted cast-iron turnings, two parts of powdered sal- 
ammoniac, and one part sulphur made into a thick paste with water and 
mixed fresh for use, makes a good cement for stopping holes in castings. 

Put pure olive oil into a clear glass bottle with strips of sheet lead and 
expose it to the sun for two or three weeks, then pour off the clear oil and 
the result is a lubricailt which w^ill neither gum nor corrode. It is used for 
watches and fine machinery of all kinds. 

Cement for Joints. — Paris white, ground, four pounds; litharge, 
ground, ten pounds; yellow ochre, fine, half a pound; half ounce of hemp, 
cut short; mix well with linseed oil to a stiff putt3\ This cement is good 
for joints on steam or water pipes. It will set under water. 



292 



PIPE. 



standard Flange Pipe. 



(U 


bOu 




^^. 


«3 




1 ^ t 


p. 

Vt-, 




Length, alio win 

Vs of an inch fo 

Gaskets. 


Diameter of 
Flanges. 


Diameter from 

Center to Cente 

of Holes. 


Number of Bolt 


Size of Bolts. 


Medium Weigh 
per Length 
including Flang< 


in. 


ft. in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. 


3 


11- 117/s 


SVs 


6H 


4 


% 


160 


4 


11—117/8 


9 


7}i 


4 


% 


240 


6 


11-11% 


12 


10)^ 


6 


% 


400 


8 


11-11% 


14 


12^4 


6 


% 


580 


10 


11—11% 


16 


14 


8 


% 


800 


12 


11-11% 


18% 


16 


8 


% 


1020 


14 


11-11% 


20 


IS'4 


10 


% 


1400 


16 


11—11% 


23 


20lh 


10 


% 


1600 


18 


11—11% 


25 


22K 


12 


% 


1800 


20 


11-11% 


28 


25K 


12 


% 


2100 


24 


11—11% 


32 


29K 


14 


% 


2800 


30 


11—11% 


40 


36% 


20 


1 


4500 


36 


11—11% 


46 


42% 


24 


1 


5200 


40 


11—11% 


50 


46 >2 


26 


1 


6200 


48 


11-11% 


58 


54^ 


30 


1% 


8200 



HowiSouND Travels. — In dry airat 82 deg. 1,142 feet per second, or 
about 775 miles per hour; in water, 4,900 feet per second; in iron, 17,500 
feet; in copper, 10,378 feet; and in wood from 12,000 to 16,000 feet per sec- 
ond. In water, a bell heard at 45,000 feet could be heard in the air out of 
the water but 656 feet. In a balloon the barking of dogs on the ground can 
be heard at an elevation of 4 miles. Divers on the wreck of theHuzzar frigate, 
100 feet underwater, at Hell Gate, nearNew York, heard the paddle wheels of 
distant steamers hours before they hove in sight. The report of a rifle on a 
still day may be heard at 5,300 yards; a military band at 5,200 yards. 
The firing of the English on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 miles. 
Dr. Jamieson said he heard, during calm weather, every word of a sermon 
at a distance of two miles. 



Mercury freezes at 40 degrees below zero, and melts at 39 degrees- 
Ether freezes at 47 degrees below zero; wine freezes at 20 degrees; sea water 
freezes at 28.3 degrees. Alcohol has been exposed to 110 and 120 degrees 
below zero without freezing. 



1>IPE. 



293 



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294 



PIPE. 



Table of Dimensions and Weights of Cast-Iron Pipes. 

3 inch and larger, 12 foot lengths. Smaller, 8 foot lengths. 



Size, Inches. 


Thickness in 


Weight per 


Weight per 


Adapted to head 


Inches. 


foot, Lbs. 


length, Lbs. 


of water Feet. 


iy2 


M 


5 


35 


75 


iy2 


1^6 


6^4 


433/4 


75 to 125 


1V2 


% 


71/2 


521/2 


125 to 175 


1% 


I's 


9 


63 


175 to 225 


2 


'A 


6 


42 


75 


2 




7y2 


521/2 


75 to 125 


2 


% 


9 


63 


125 to 175 


2 


/e 


101/2 


731/2 


175 to 225 


3 


A 


11 


136 


75 


3 


% 


121/2 


154 


75 to 125 


3 


i'e 


15 


180 


125 to 175 


3 


H 


171/2 


216 


175 to 225 


4 


h 


IGV2 


203 


75 


4 


% 


18 


222 


75 to 125 


4 


il 


19V2 


240 


125 to 175 


4 


fe 


21 


259 


175 to 225 


6 


% 


25 


309 


75 


6 


h 


301/2 


376 


75 to 125 


6 


M 


321/2 


400 


125 to 175 


6 


K 


35 


432 


175 to 225 


8 


h 


401/2 


499 


75 


8 


^f 


43 


530 


75 to 125 


8 


^1 


481/2 


598 


125 to 175 


8 


h% 


54 


666 


175 to 225 


10 


1% 


53 


654 


75 


10 


y^ 


57 


703 


75 to 125 


10 


h% 


67 


826 


125 to 175 


10 


M 


73 


900 


175 to 225 


12 


K 


68 


839 


75 


12 


H 


72 


888 


75 to 125 


12 


% 


84 


1,036 


125 to 175 


12 


ft 


97 


1,196 


175 to 225 


14 


H 


84 


1,043 


75 


14 


H 


94 


1,167 


75 to 125 


14 


H 


108 


1,341 


125 to 175 


14 


11 


127 


1,577 


175 to 225 


16 


r% 


101 


1,254 


75 


16 


% 


117 


1,453 


75 to 125 


16 


% 


134 


1,664 


125 to 175 


16 


% 


155 


1,925 


175 to 225 


18 


if 


120 


1,490 


75 


18 




132 


1,639 


75 to 125 


18 


16 


162 


2,011 


125 to 175 


18 


ll 


187 


2,322 


175 to 225 


20 


% 


140 


1,738 


75 


20 


n 


154 


1,912 


75 to 125 


20 


% 


194 


2,409 


125 to 175 


20 


1 


221 


2,744 


175 to 225 



Other weights adapted to any head or pressure. 
All pipes are tested to 300 pounds per square inch. 

All pipes cast vertically in dry sand, in length of 12 feet, exclusive of 
the bell, except 13^ inch and 2 iijch. 



PIPE. 



295 



Standard Weight of Pipe for Gas and Water Per Foot and 
Per Ifengthy Including Bells. 





For 


Gas. 


For Water. 









53 


•S 


•r' 














1 





n3 




in 




-M 




-»-» 


^ 


l.i 




fe 


^ 


fa 


-M 


'^ 1=3 


(4-1 


s 


4^ 


«-i-i 


^ ft 




U 




u 

CO 










1^ 


+J 
.biOo 


II 


Q 


>A 


^J 


J 


kJ 


^ 


Q 



•—J 


Q 


tt 


in. 










ft. in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


Lbs. 


% 


3 


11 


132 


12 


144 


12—4 


31/2 


h 


1% 


31/2 


0-« 


4 


18 


216 


20 


240 


12—4 


31/2 


h 


1% 


41/4 


6 


281/2 


342 


3IV2 


378 


12—4 


4 


h 


1% 


61/4 




8 


40 


480 


45 


540 


12—4 


4 


h 


1% 


81/4 


10 


55 


660 


60 


720 


12-4 


4 


h 


1% 


101/4 


%^ 


12 


70 


840 


80 


960 


12—4 


4 


A 


2 


13 




14 


90 


1080 


100 


1200 


12—4 


4 


1%- 


2 


15 


■^t: 


16 


110 


1320 


125 


1500 


12-4 


4 


% 


2V8 


241/4 


-a^ 


18 


140 


1680 


156 


1875 


12-4 


4 


% 


2V8 


271/4 


■'1 
., 


20 


150 


1800 


175 


2100 


12—4 


4 


% 


2V8 


303/4 


24 


200 


2400 


230 


2760 


12—4 


4 


% 


21/4 


381/4 


^§ 


30 


290 


3480 


340 


4080 


12—4 


4 


7 

16 


23/8 


563/4 


u 


36 


360 


4320 


420 


5040 


12—4 


4 


^ 


2V2 


791/2 


^^ 


40 


420 


5040 


500 


6000 


1-2-4 


5 


M 


21/2 


883/4 


J! 


48 


560 


6720 


1 670 


' 8040 


12—4 


5 


K 


2% 


111 





5 per cent claimed for variation from 3 to 24 inch, and 3 per cent from 
24 to 48 inch. 

Pipe 12 feet long has 440 joints per mile. 



Good steel will not bear a white heat without falHng to pieces, and will 
crumble under the hammer at a bright red heat, while at a middling heat 
it may be drawn out under the hammer to a fine point. Care should be 
taken that before attempting to draw it out to a point, the fracture is not 
concave, and should it be so, the en 1 should be filed to an obtuse point be- 
fore operating. Steel should be drawn out to a fine point and plunged into 
cold water; the fractured point should scratch glass. 

To test its toughness, place a fragment on a block of cast-iron ; if good, 
it may be driven by the blow of a hammer into the cast-iron; if poor, it 
will crush under the blow. 



296 



PIPE. 



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298 



PIPE. 



Capacity of Sewer Pipe. 

When the area to be drained and the fall of the sewer per hundred feet 
is known, the size of the pipe required can be easily determined, by referring 
to the following table, which shows the number of gallons discharged per 
minute for specified sizes and grades. In main sewers this flow of course 
is greatly increased by the added pressure of connecting laterals. 

CARRYING CAPACITY — GALLONS PER MINUTE. 



Size of 
Pipe. 


.o 

s o 




h 
II 

CO-" 


k 

c o 

*'"' r-( 


. o 

CO 


do 


=1 


k 

CO 


3 in 


13 

27 

75 

205 

422 

740 

1168 

2396 

4187 


19 

38 
105 


23 

47 

1 9Q 


32 

66 

183 

503 

1033 

1818 

2860 

5871 

10257 


40 

81 

224 

617 

1273 

2224 

3508 

7202 

12580 


46 

93 

258 

711 

1468 

2464 

4045 

8303 

14504 


64 

131 

364 

1006 

2076 

3617 

5704 

11744 

20516 


79 


4? *' 


163 


6 " 


450 


9 '• 


290 355 
596 730 
1021 1282 
1651 2022 
3387 i 4152 
5920 725*2 


1240 


12 " 


2554 


15 " 


4467 


:i8 " 


7047 


24 " 


14466 


30 " 


25277 



















Rules for lyaying Drainage Pipes. 



Soils. 



Coarse gravel sand 

Light sand with gravel 

Light loam 

Loam with clay 

Loam w^ith gravel 

Sandy loam 

Soft clay 

Stiff clay 



Depth of Pipe. 



4 ft. 6 in. 



'• 

6 ' 

2 " 

3 " 
9 " 
9 '' 



2 " 6 " 



Distance Apart. 



60 ft. 
50 " 
33 " 
21 " 
27 " 
40 " 
21 " 
15 " 



Greatest fall of rain is 2 inches per hour. This equals 54308.6 gallons 
per acre. 



Cl^MlENT TO FASTEN IRON TO STONE. 



Take 10 parts of fine iron filings, 
30 " " plaster of Paris, 
14 " " Sal ammoniac; 
Mix with weak vinegar to a fluid paste and apply at once. 



PIPE. 



299 



WJI^IGHTS OF I^^AD PIPB. 



Caliber. 



14 inch tubing 

% inch aqueduct . ., 

light 

medium 

strong 

ex. strong , 
V^ inch aqueduct. .. 

ex. light.... 

liRbt 

medium.... 

strong 

ex. strong. 
% inch aqueduct... 

ex. light 

light 

medium .... 

strong 

ex. strong. 
% inch aqueduct .. 

ex. light ... 

light 

medium .... 

strong 

ex. strong. 
% inch aqueduct .. 

ex. light.. . 

light 

1 inch aqueduct.. 

ex. light . . . . 

light 

medium .... 

strong 

ex. strong. 
1 14 inch aqueduct . . 

ex. light. .. 

light 

medium.... 

strong 

ex. strong. 



Weight 

per 
Foot. 



lbs. 



oz. 
6 

8 
12 

8 

10 
12 

4 
12 

8 
12 

4 
12 



8 
8 

8 
8 

8 
4 

12 

8 

12 
12 



CaHber. 



Weight 

per 
Foot. 



114 inch 



1% inch 



2 inch 
2 inch 



21/2 inch 

3 inch 

3V2 inch 

4 inch 



414 inch 
5 inch 



aqueduct . 
ex. light... 

light 

medium ... 

strong , 

ex. strong 
ex. light... 

light 

medium .... 

strong 

ex. strong, 

waste 

ex. light..., 

light 

medium ..., 

strong 

ex. strong, 
3-16 thick 
1/4 thick .... 
5-16 thick. 

% thick 

waste 

3-16 thick 
^4 thick.... 
5-16 thick 
% thick.... 
14 thick.... 
5-16 thick 

% thick 

waste 

14 thick ... 
5-16 thick 
% thick.... 
7-16 thick 

waste 

waste 



lbs 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 

9 

8 

11 

14 

17 

5 

9 

12 

16 

20 

15 

18 

21 

5 

16 

21 

25 

30 

6 

8 



Bars of wrought iron will expand or contract 151200ths of their 
length for each degree of heat. With the range of temperature of the U. S. 
from 40° below zero to 120° above equal to 160°, wrought iron will expand 
or contract more than 1080th of its length, equal to a force of 20,740 lbs., 
or 914 tons per square inch of cross section. Tensile strength increases in 
from 1 to 6 re-heatings and rollings, from 43,904 lbs. to 61,824 lbs. ; in 
from 6 to 12 it is redticed again to 43,904 lbs. 



300 



PIPE. 



TABIvB OF THICKN:eSS OP I/i^AD PIPE. 

To bear internal pressures with a safety of 6. taking the ultimate 
cohesion of lead at 1,400 lbs. per square inch. 





HEADS IN FEET. 




100 


200 300 


400 1 


500 


Internal 


















Diame- 




PRESSURE IN LBS. PER 


SQ. INCH. 




ter in 
Inches, 


43.4 


86.8 130 


174 1 


217 




THICKNESS IN INCHES. 


14 


.026 


.055 


.089 


.128 


.171 


% 


.038 


.083 


.134 


.192 


.256 


y^ 


.051 


.111 


.179 


.256 


.341 


% 


.064 


.138 


.223 


.320 


.427 


% 


.076 


.166 


.268 


.383 


.512 


% 


.089 


.193 


.313 


.447 


.597 


1 


.102 


.221 


.357 


.511 


.682 


iM 


.127 


.276 


.447 


.639 


.853 


1V2 


.153 


332 


.536 


.767 


1.02 


1% 


.178 


.387 


.626 


.895 


1.20 


2 


.204 


.442 


.714 


1.02 


1.36 



PURB BIvOCK TIN PIPB. 





Wt.pr 


Foot. 


CALIBER. 


Wt. per Foot. 


CALIBER. 


Lbs. 


Oz. 


Lbs. 


Oz. 


^ inch strong 




2y2 
5 

6 

6V2 
6 
8 

61/2 
10 


1/2 inch dbl. ex. strong 
% inch ex. strong 




15 






9 


dbl. ex. strong 
5-16 inch dbl. ex strong 

% inch ex. strong 

dbl ex stronp 





dbl. ex. strong 
% inch ex. strong 

dbl. ex. strong 
1 inch ex. strong 




14 




i 


11 





14 


^ inch stron g ' 


dbl. ex. strong 


1 


4 















A mixture of 30 per cent of wrought iron with cast-iron, carefully fused 
in a crucible, increases the strength of cast-iron one-third. 

Chilling the underside of cast-iron, materially increases its strength. 
Chilled bars of cast-iron deflect more readily than unchilled. Cast-iron, at 
2.5 tons per square inch, will extend same as wrought iron at 5-6 tons. 



801 



WEIGHT OF RIVBTED IRON AND COPPER PIPES 

Per Running Foot, Including I^aps for Riveting and Calking, 
but Not the Weight of Rivets. 



Inter. 
Diara. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Iron. 


Copper. 


Inter. 
Diam. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Iron. 


Copper. 


In. 


In. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


In. 


In. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


5 


^ 


7.12 


8.14 


11 


1^ 


22.75 


26.30 




A 


10.68 


12.21 




J€ 


30.50 


34.85 




Va 


14.25 


16.28 




i^6 


38.15 


43.70 


5V2 


Ys 


7.78 


8.89 


12 


h 


24.08 


28.50 




1% 


11.66 


13.33 




Y^ 


33.13 


38.00 




H 


15.56 


17.78 




h 


41.25 


47.50 


6 


% 


8.44 


9.64 


13 


h 


26.75 


31.20 




1% 


12.65 


14.46 




% 


35.75 


41.50 




'4 


16.88 


19.29 




h 


44.55 


51.80 


6V2 


% 


9.10 


10.40 


14 


h 


28.75 


33.20 




1% 


13.65 


15.60 




Ya 


38.50 


44.00 




% 


18.2 


20.80 




h 


47.00 


55.50 


7 


% 


9.78 


1L18 


15 


h 


30.83 


35 50 




h 


14.68 


16.78 




3€ 


41.00 


47.25 




y^ 


19.57 


22.37 




1^6 


51.50 


59.30 


71/2 


H 


10.49 


12.00 


16 


X 


43.75 


50.50 




h 


15.73 


17.98 




h 


54.75 


63.00 




K 


20.90 


23.87 


17 


M 


46.50 


53.20 


s 


% 


11.20 


12.60 




h 


58.00 


66.50 




h 


16.70 


19.08 


18 


'4 


49.20 


56.50 




Ya. 


22.25 


25.44 




1% 


61.50 


70.50 


SVs 


% 


11.9 


13 50 


19 


Y. 


51.75 


59.50 




h 


18.0 


20.20 




h 


64.70 


75.00 




Va. 


23.60 


26.96 


20 


M 


55.60 


62.60 


9 


h 


18.75 


21.50 




1% 


68.00 


78.00 




^ 


25.00 


28.58 


24 


1% 


81.33 


93.60 


9V2 


i^e 


19.75 


22.50 


25 


h 


84.50 


97.50 




Y^ 


26.33 


30.09 


28 


h 


94.56 


107.95 


10 


Y4. 

h 


21.00 
27.75 
34.50 


24.00 
31.71 
40.00 


30 


-h 


101.14 


115.60 



WEIGHTS OF GAI<VANI^ED IRON PIPE. 

IN POUNDS PER RUNNING FOOT. 



Diam 
of pipe 
in ins. 


No. 24'no. 22No. 20 


No. 18 


No. 16 


Diam. 
of pipe 
m ins. 


! 

No. 24 No. 22 No. 20 


No. 18 No 16 


Gauge. 


Gauge. 


Gauge. 


Gauge. 


Gauge. 


Gauge. Gauge Gauge 


Gauge 


Gauge 


4 


IVe 


IM 


2 


21/2 


314 


28 


9/2 


11^2 


14 


18 


21/2 


5 


IM 


2 


21/2 


3^2 


4 


30 


10 


1214 


15 


191/2 


23 


6 


2H 


21/2 


3 


4 


434 


32 


10% 


13 


16 


21 


24/2 


7 


2% 


3 


31/2 


41/2 


51/2 


34 


11/2 


14 


17 


22 


26 


« 


2?| 


3% 


4 


514 


6% 


36 


12 


15 


18 


24 


27/2 


9 


314 


334 


41/2 


5M 


7 


38 


12M 


16 


19 


25 


29/2 


^0 


34 


4 


5 


6 1/2 


7% 


40 


13/2 


17 


20 


26 V, 


31 


11 


3M 


414 


51/2 


7 


8M 


42 




18 


21 


28 


33 


12 


4 


4% 


6 


71/2 


9 


44 




19 


22 


30 


35 


13 


414 


5 


6% 


8/2 


10 


46 




20 


23 


31/2 


37 


14 


4% 


5/2 


7 


9 


11 


48 




21 


24 


33 


39 


15 


5 


6 


71/2 


9M 


12 


50 




22 


25 


35 


41 


16 


5?^ 


6 1/2 


8 


1014 


13 


52 






26 


36/2 


43 


18 


6 


7^ 


9 


11^ 


1414 


54 






27 


38^ 


45 


20 


GVb 


8 


10 


12% 


151/2 


56 






28 


40 


47 


22 


7H 


8% 


11 


14 


1634 


58 






29 


42 


49 


24 


8 


9% 


12 


15li 


I8/2 


60 






30 


44 


51 


26 


8U 


101/2 


13 


16/2 


20 















302 



PIPE. 



TABI^B 

Showing Square Feet of Surface on Pipes of Various I/engths 

and Diameters. 



i 


NOMINAL INSIDE DIAMETER. 


I 


NOMINAL INSIDE DIAMETER. 


1 


1" 


134" 


iw 


2" 


2Y2" 


3" 


1" 


IH" 


1^2" 


2" 


2^2" 


3" 




"^- 


Sq. ft. 


Sq. ft. 


Sq. ft. 


Sq. ft. 


Sq. ft. 




Sq. ft. 


'k?- 


Sq. ft. 
25.3 


\f 


Sq. ft. 


Sq. ft. 


1 


.434 


.497 


.621 


.752 


.916 


51 


17.5 


38.4 


46.7 


2 


.7 


.9 


1.0 


1.2 


1.5 


1.8 


52 


17.9 


22.6 


25.8 


32.3 


39.1 


47.6 


3 


1.0 


1.3 


1.5 


1.9 


2.3 


2.7 


53 


18.2 


23.0 


26.3 


32.9 


39.9 


48.5 


4 


1.4 


1.7 


2.0 


2.5 


3.0 


3.7 


54 


18.6 


23.4 


26.8 


33.5 


40.6 


49.5 


5 


1.7 


2.2 


2.5 


3.1 


3.8 


4.6 


55 


18.9 


23.9 


27.3 


34.2 


41.4 


50.4 


6 


2.1 


2.6 


3.0 


3.7 


4.5 


5.5 


56 


19.3 


24.3 


27.8 


34.8 


42.1 


51.3 


7 


2.4 


3.0 


3.5 


4.3 


5.3 


6.4 


57 


19.6 


24.7 


28.3 


35.4 


42.9 


52.2 


8 


2.8 


3.5 


4.0 


5.0 


6.0 


7.3 


58 


20.0 


25.2 


28.8 


36.0 


43.6 


53.1 


9 


3.1 


3.9 


4.5 


5.6 


6.8 


8.2 


59 


20.3 


25.6 


29.3 


36.6 


44.4 


54.0 


10 


3.4 


4.3 


5.0 


6.2 


7.5 


9.2 


60 


20.6 


26.0 


29.8 


37.3 


45.1 


55.0 


11 


3.8 


4.8 


5.5 


6.8 


8.3 


10.1 


61 


21.0 


26.5 


30.3 


37.9 


45.9 


55.9 


12 


4.1 


5.2 


6.0 


7.5 


9.0 


11.0 


62 


21.3 


26.9 


30.8 


38.5 


46.6 


56.8 


13 


4.5 


5.6 


6.5 


8.1 


9.8 


11.9 


63 


21.7 


27.3 


31.3 


39.1 


47.4 


57.7 


14 


4.8 


6.1 


7.0 


8.7 


10.5 


12.8 


64 


22.0 


27.8 


31.8 


39.7 


48.1 


58.6 


15 


5.2 


6.5 


7.5 


9.3 


11.3 


13.7 


65 


22.4 


28.2 


32.3 


40.4 


48.9 


59.5 


16 


5.5 


6.9 


8.0 


9.9 


12.0 


14.7 


66 


22.7 


28.6 


32.8 


41.0 


49.6 


60.5 


17 


5.8 


7.4 


8.5 


10.6 


12.8 


15.6 


67 


23.0 


29.1 


33.3 


41.6 


50.4 


61.4 


18 


6.2 


7.8 


8.9 


11.2 


13.5 


16.5 


68 


23.4 


29.5 


33.8 


42.2 


51.1 


62.3 


19 


6.5 


8.2 


9.4 


11.8 


14.3 


17.4 


69 


23.7 


29.9 


34.3 


42.8 


51.9 


63.2 


20 


6.9 


8.7 


9.9 


12.4 


15.0 


18.3 


70 


24.1 


30.4 


34.8 


43.5 


52.6 


64.1 


21 


7.2 


9.1 


10.4 


13.0 


15.8 


19.2 


71 


24.4 


30.8 


35.3 


44.1 


53.4 


65.0 


22 


7.6 


9.5 


10.9 


13.7 


16.5 


20.2 


72 


24.8 


31.2 


35.8 


44.7 


54.1 


66.0 


23 


7.9 


10.0 


11.4 


14.3 


17.3 


21.1 


73 


25.1 


31.7 


36.3 


45.3 


54.9 


66.9 


24 


8.3 


10.4 


11.9 


14.9 


18.0 


22.0 


74 


25.5 


32.1 


36.8 


46.0 


55.6 


67.8 


25 


8.6 


10.9 


12.4 


15.5 


18.8 


22.9 


75 


25.8 


32.6 


37.3 


46.6 


56.4 


68.7 


26 


8.9 


11.3 


12.9 


16.1 


19.6 


23.8 


76 


26.1 


33.0 


37.8 


47.2 


57.2 


69.6 


27 


9.3 


11.7 


13.4 


16.8 


20.3 


24.7 


77 


26.5 


83.4 


38.3 


47.8 


57.9 


70.5 


28 


9.6 


12.2 


13.9 


17.4 


21.1 


25.6 


78 


26.8 


33.9 


38.8 


48.4 


58.7 


71.4 


29 


10.0 


12.6 


14.4 


18.0 


21.8 


26.6 


79 


27.2 


34.3 


39.3 


49.1 


59.4 


72.4 


30 


10.3 


13.0 


14.9 


18.6 


22.6 


27.5 


80 


27.5 


34.7 


39.8 


49.7 


60.2 


73.3 


31 


10.7 


13.5 


15.4 


19.3 


23.3 


28.4 


81 


2r.9 


35.2 


40.3 


50.3 


60.9 


74.2 


32 


11.0 


13.9 


15.9 


19.9 


24.1 


29.3 


82 


28.2 


35.6 


40.8 


50.9 


61.7 


75.1 


33 


11.4 


14.3 


16.4 


20.5 


24.8 


30.2 


83 


28.6 


36.0 


41.3 


51.5 


62.4 


76.0 


34 


11.7 


14.8 


16.9 


21.1 


25.6 


31.1 


84 


28.9 


36.5 


41.7 


52.2 


63.2 


76.9 


35 


12.0 


15.2 


17.4 


21.7 


26.3 


32.1 


85 


29.2 


36.9 


42.2 


52.8 


63.9 


77.9 


36 


12.4 


15.6 


17.9 


22.4 


27.1 


33.0 


86 


29.6 


37.3 


42.7 


53.4 


64.7 


78.8 


37 


12.7 


16.1 


18.4 


23.0 


27.8 


33.9 


87 


29.9 


37.8 


43.2 


54.0 


65.4 


79.7 


38 


13.1 


16.5 


18.9 


23.6 


28.6 


34.8 


88 


30.3 


38.2 


43.7 


54.6 


66.2 


80.6 


39 


13.4 


16.9 


19.4 


24.2 


29.3 


35.7 


89 


30.6 


38.6 


44.2 


55.3 


66.9 


81.5 


40 


13.8 


17.4 


19.9 


24.8 


30.1 


36.6 


90 


31.0 


39.1 


44.7 


55.9 


67.7 


82.4 


41 


14.1 


17.8 


20.4 


25.5 


30.8 


37.6 


91 


31.3 


39.5 


45.2 


56.5 


68.4 


83.4 


42 


14.4 


18.2 


20.9 


26.1 


31.6 


38.5 


92 


31.6 


39.9 


45.7 


57.1 


69.2 


84.3 


43 


14.8 


18.7 


21.4 


26.7 


32.3 


39.4 


93 


32.0 


40.4 


46.2 


57.8 


70.0 


85.2 


44 


15.1 


19.1 


21.9 


27.3 


33.1 


40.3 


94 


32.3 


40.8 


46.7 


58.4 


70.7 


86.1 


45 


15.5 


19.5 


22.4 


27.9 


33.8 


41.2 


95 


32.7 


41.2 


47.2 


59.0 


71.4 


87.0 


46 


15.8 


20.0 


22.9 


28.6 


34.6 


42.1 


96 


33.0 


41.7 


47.7 


59.6 


72.2 


87.9 


47 


16.2 


20.4 


23.4 


29.2 


35.3 


43.1 


97 


33.4 


42.1 


48.2 


60.2 


72.9 


88.9 


48 


16.5 


20.8 


23.9 


29.8 


36.1 


44.0 


98 


33.7 


42.5 


48.7 


60.9 


73.7 


89.8 


49 


16.9 


21.3 


24.4 


30.4 


36.8 


44.9 


99 


34.1 


43.0 


49.2 


61.5 


74.4 


90.7 


50 


17.2 


21.7 


24.9 


31.1 


37.6 


45.8 


100 


34.4 


43.4 


49.7 1 62.1 


75.2 


91.6 



A cast-iron beam will bend with one-third of its breaking weight, if the 
load is laid on gradually — one-sixth if laid on at once, will produce the 
same effect, lience should be capable of bearing six times the greatest weight 
which can be laid on it. 



PIPE. 



303 



DIAM:ieT:^R OF BI/AST PIPES. 

Table Showing the Necessary Increase in Diameter for the 
Different I^engths. 

Tt will bP seen bv reference to the following table, that the diameter of pipe for transmitting 
or carrvinc air from one point to another, changes with the length or distance which the air is 
carried from the blower to the furnace, or other point of delivery. ^ ^ ^ . ^. 

As ai? moves through pipes, a portion of its force is retarded by the friction of its particles 
alon^ the sides of the pipe, and the loss of pressure from this source increases directly as the 
fengrh of the pipe, and :is the square of the velocity of the moving air. 

Thififirt has iono- been known, and many experimenters and engineers, by close observa- 
tion and long continued experiments have established formulas by which the loss of pressure 
and the additional amount of power required to force air or gases through pipes of any length 
and diameter may be computed. 

As these formulas are commonly expressed m algebraic notation, not in general use, we 
have thought it desirable to arrange a table showing at a glance all the necessary proportionate 
increase in diameter and length of blast pipe and conical mouth-pieces, in keeping up the 
pressure to the point of delivery. It is often the case where a blower is condemned as being 
i/i«/?!aen<, the cause of its failure is. that the pipe connections are too small for their length 
and laro^e number of short bends, without regard to making the pipe tight, which is a necessity. 

The table, diameter of pipes, given below, showing the necessary increase in the size of 
pipes in proportion to the length is what we call a practical one, and experience has proven 
the necessity for it. 



LENGTH OF PIPE. 


30 ft. 


60 ft. 

■£9 

11 


90 ft. 


120 ft 


150 ft 


1 
180 ft. 


210 FT. 


240 ft 


270 ft 


300 ft 


1. 
S| 

II 


II 




11 


41/2 

5 

534 


I2 

II 

P 


11 


c 


s 


3 

4 




3% 

41/8 
42i 


4 

41/2 
51/8 


414 

4% 
5% 


434 

5« 


5 

51/2 
614 


51/8 

5% 
6/2 


5% 

5% 


51/2 


6 


5 

51/2 
61/2 


5% 
6 

7 


534 

6% 

7% 


6 

ex 


63% 
81/^ 


9 


7 

734 

9% 


714 

81/8 

934 


71/2 

8% 

101/8 


7% 
834 
10/2 


7 
8 
9 


7% 

10 


814 

9/2 


8% 
lOi/a 

11/2 


10^ 

121/8 


10 

11% 

12% 


10% 
11% 
13% 


10% 


11% 

12% 
141/2 


1134 
13% 
151/8 


121/8 

13% 

15% 


10 
11 

12 


11 

18 
131/8 


11% 

13 

1414 


12^ 
13% 
15^ 


131^ 
1434 

161/8 


1414 


14% 
16% 

17% 


151/2 
171/8 
18% 


161/8 

1734 

19% 


16M 
I81/2 
201/8 


17% 

191/8 

20% 


13 
14 
15 


1414 
15% 
I6I/2 


15% 
16% 


161^ 
1734 
19 


nl/i 

.18% 
201/8 


18% 

193£ 

2l>4 


1914 
20M 
2214 


201/8 
21 M 
2314 


21 

22% 
2414 


2\% 
231/2 
251/8 


22% 
2414 
26 


16 
17 
18 


171/2 
17% 
1934 


19 

201/8 

21% 


203^ 

21/2 
222£ 


211/2 
2234 
2414 


22% 

24 

251/2 


23% 
2634 


24 3^ 
26% 
27% 


25% 
27>^ 
291/8 


26% 
281/2 
301/8 


27M 
291/2 
3114 


19 
20 
21 


20% 

22 

23 


221/2 
23% 
24% 


24 

253^ 
26% 


251/2 
27% 
2814 


27 

28% 
2934 

311/8 

150 ft. 


2814 
2934 

311/8 


291/2 

31 

321/2 


30 3£ 
3214 
33% 


31% 
331/2 
3514 


33 

3434 
36% 


22 
23 
24 


241/8 
2514 
261/2 


261/8 

2714 


27% 
291/^ 

303/3 


29/2 
30% 
3214 


32% 
3414 
35% 


341/8 
35% 

3714 


351/2 
371/8 
38% 


36% 

381/2 
4014 


381/8 
39% 
41% 


Length of Pipe. 


30 ft. 


60 ft. 


90 ft. 


120 ft. 


180 ft. 


210 ft. 


240 ft. 


270 ft. 


300 ft. 


Length of Mouth-piece. 


9 in. 


15 in. 


21 in. 


27 in. 


33 in. 


39 in. 


42 in. 


48 in. 


54 in. 


60 in. 



The longer the Pipe, the larger the Diameter. 



304 



PIPE. 



To £nd the weight, per running foot, of pipes and tubes. 

Rule: Square the external diameter of the pipe, or tube, in inches. 
Square, also, the internal diameter. Subtract the latter from the former, 
and multiply the remainder by the constant number 2.64 for wrought iron, 
2.45 for cast iron, 2.82 for brass, 3.03 for copper, and 3.86 for lead, and 
the product will be the weight per lineal foot. 

To And ths loss of pressure in air pipes by reason of friction. 

Rule: Divide the coefficients, in the following table, corresponding to 
the diameter of the pipe, and multiply the quotient by the square of the 
number of cubic feet of air passing per second, and this product by the 
weight of one cubic foot of air in ounces, and this product by the constant 
number .000733, and this product by the length of pipe in yards, and the 
result will be the total loss of pressure in line of pipe. 

Table of Coefficients. 



Diameter of Pipe 
in Inches. 


Coefficient. 


Diameter of Pipe 
in Inches. 


Coefficient. 


.394 


58395000 00 


5.905 


25.32 


.787 


1169250.00 


7.087 


9.918 


1.063 


222800.00 


7.874 


5.785 


1.575 


26280.00 


9.055 


2.836 


2.126 


5267.50 


10.236 


1.517 


2.362 


3010.40 


11.024 


1.042 


3.150 


601.00 


12.205 


0.621 


3.543 


356.90 


13.386 


0.339 


3.937 


206.20 


14.173 


0.291 


5.118 


52.92 


14.961 


0.221 



Cubic feet of air passing per second, may be calculated from the strokes 
of the air compressor. 



Medical Divisions of the Gallon. 

69 Minims— (M) = 1 Fluidrara M f3 il 

8 Fluidrams— (f 3) = 1 Fluidounce = 480 

lOFluidounces— (fl) = 1 Pint = 7,680= 128 

8 Pints— (O) = 1 Gallon (Cong.) = 61,440 = 1,024 =128 

is an abbreviation of octans, tht Latin for one-eighth; Cong, for 
congiarium, the Latin for gallon. 

1 Common teaspoonful =: 45 drops. 

1 Common teaspoonful = V4, common tablespoonful = 1 fluidram. 

1 Common tablespoonful = Vs common teacup = about X fluidounce. 

1 Common teacup = about 4 fluidounces. 

1 Pint of water = about 1 pound. 

^ is an abbreviation for recipe, ortake; a aa., for equal quantities ; j. 
for 1 ; ij. for 2 ; iij. for 3 ; ss. for semi, or half; gr. for grain ; P for particula, 
or little part ; P. seq. for equal parts ; q. p., as much as you please. 



PIPE. 



30^ 



AR^AS AND C0NT:^NTS OF PIPES, AND SQUARE 
ROOTS OF DIAMETERS. 



s 

Q 


Diameter in Feet. 


Area in sq. ft.; 
also cubic ft. in 1 
ft. length of Pipe. 


c 

«■;: 

Si! 

P 


7J 

+-> 
1) 

B 
Q 


1 Diameter in Feet. 


1 Area in sq. ft.; 
also cubic ft. in 1 
ft. length of Pipe. 


Square Root of 
1 Diameter in Feet. 
1 


V4. 


.0208 


.0003 


.145 


111/2 


.9583 


.7213 


.979 


% 


.0313 


.0008 


.177 


113/4 


.9792 


.7530 


.990 


V2 


.0417 


.0014 


.204 


12 


1. 


.7854 


, 1.000 


% 


.0625 


.0031 


. 250 


1214 


1.021 


.8184. 


1.010 


1 


.0833 


.0055 


.289 


121/2 


1.042 


.8522 


1.020 


IV4 


.1042 


.0085 


.322 


123/4 


1.063 


.8866 


1.031 


IV2 


.1250 


.0123 


.354 


13 


1.083 


.9218 


1.041 


2 


.1667 


.0218 


.408 


131/4 


1.104 


.9576 


1.051 


2V2 


.2083 


.0341 


.457 


131/2 


1.125 


.9940 


1.060 


23/4 


.2292 


.0412 


.478 


133/4 


1.146 


1 031 


1.070 


3 


.2500 


.0491 


.500 


14 


1.167 


1 069 


1.080 


31/4 


.2708 


.0576 


.520 


141/2 


1.208 


1.147 


1.099 


31/2 


.2917 


.0668 


.540 


l43^ 


1.229 


1.187 


1.110 


33/4 


.3125 


.0767 


.560 


15 


1.250 


1.227 


1.118 


4 


.3333 


.0873 


.579 


151/4 


1.271 


1.268 


1.127 


41/4 


.3542 


.0985 


.596 


151/2 


1.292 


1.310 


1.136 


41/2 


.3750 


.1104 


.612 


153/4 


1.313 


1.353 


1.146 


43/4 


.3958 


.1231 


.629 


16 


1.333 


1..^96 


1.155 


5 


.4167 


.1363 


.645 


I61/4 


1.354 


1.4.40 


1.163 


5V4 


.4375 


.1503 


.660 


I61/2 


1.375 


1.485 


1.172 


51/2 


.4583 


.1650 


.677 


163/4 


1.396 


1.530 


1.181 


53/4 


.4792 


.1803 


.693 


17 


1.417 


1.576 , 


1.190 


6 


.5 


.1964 


.707 


1714 


1.437 


1.623 


1.199 


614 


.5208 


.2131 


.722 


171/2 


1.458 


1.670 


1.207 


6V2 


.5417 


.2304 


.736 


173/4 


1.479 


1.718 


1.216 


63/4 


.5625 


.2485 


.750 


18 


1.5 


1.767 


1.224 


7 


.5833 


.2673 


.764 


I81/2 


1.542 


1.867 


1.241 


714 


.6042 


.2867 


.777 


19 


1.583 


1.969 


1.258 


71/2 


.6250 


.3068 


.791 


20 


1.667 


2.182 


1.291 


73/4 


.6458 


.3276 


.803 


21 


1.750 


2.405 


1.323 


8 


.6667 


.3491 


.817 


22 


1.833 


2.640 


1.354 


81/4 


.6875 


.3712 


.829 


23 


1.917 


2.885 


1.384 


81/2 


.7083 


.3941 


.841 


24 


2.000 


3.142 


1.414 


83/4 


.7292 


.4176 


.854 


25 


2.083 


3.409 


1.443 


9 


.75 


.4418 


.866 


26 


2.166 


3.687 


1.472 


9V4 


.7708 


.4667 


.879 


27 


2.250 


3.976 


1.500 


91/2 


.7917 


.4922 


.890 


28 


2.333 


4.276 


1.528 


93/4 


.8125 


.5185 


.902 


29 


2.416 


4.587 


1.555 


10 


.8333 


.5454 


.913 


30 


2.500 


4.909 


1.581 


101/4 


.8542 


.5730 


.924 


32 


2.666 


5.585 


1.633 


101/2 


.8750 


.6013 


.935 


35 


2.916 


6.681 


1.708 


103/4 


.8958 


.6303 


.946 


40 


3.333 


8.727 


1.825 


11 


.9167 


.6600 


.957 


42 


3.500 


9.621 


1.871 


111/4 


.9375 


.6903 


.968 











20 



306 



PIPE. 



T* 


TJ 


p 


;^ 




o 


(0 


o 


(U 


<\t 


.^ 


tn 


fk 


u 




<u 


ti 


A 


o 




VI 


"♦J 


H 


0) 




<u 


« 


(^ 


d 




(U 


;^ 


1-1 




U 






<u 


o 


A 


^ 


.J7 


(C 


Pi 


-*-> 


.s 


G 






1 


P 


(fH 




o 




b^ 




4J 




a 


tn 


o 


G 


a; 


i4 


l> 


o 


o 
to 


4-» 


<J 


(L> 




<U 




tl4 




o 


2 


o 


A 


H 




a 


;h 


cti 


(U 


w 


A 


V4 






^ 


a 


<4-l 


OJ 


o 


to 




<u 


(0 


u 


<u 


PM 


•^ 






(0 


-M 


^ 


« 


;^ 


rt 


a 


3 


(S 


Ol 


.s 


11 




•iH 


o 


o 


r-l 


&A 


« 


G 


o 


b)) 


^ 


Vi 


o 


rt 


•a 
ft. 





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PIPE. 



307 



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308 



PIPE. 



CONTENTS OF CYI,IND:^RS AND PIPES IN CUBIC 
FEET AND GAI,I,ONS. 



f3 


For one foot 


s 


For one foot 


S 


For one foot 


03 

Q 


in Length, 


Q 


in Length. 


Q 


in Length. 






Galls. 






Galls. 






Galls. 


Ins. 


Cubic 


of 231 


Ins. 


Cubic 


of 231 




Cubic 


of 231 


Feet. 


cubic 


Feet. 


cubic 


Ins. 


Feet. 


cubic 






Inches. 






Inches. 






Inches. 


M 


.0003 


.0025 


V4 


.0985 


.7369 


1/2 


.6013 


4.498 


fe 


.0005 


.004 


V2 


.1104 


.8263 


% 


.6303 


4.715 


% 


.0008 


.0057 


% 


.1231 


.9206 


11 


.66 


4.937 


7 

i.fi 


.001 


.0078 


5 


.1364 


1.02 


1/4 


.6903 


5.164 


y, 


.0014 


.0102 


1/4 


.1503 


1.125 


1/2 


.7213 


5.396 


1% 


.0017 


.0129 


V2 


.165 


1.234 


% 


.753 


5.633 


'A 


.0021 


.0159 


% 


.1803 


1.349 


12 


.7854 


5.875 


H 


.0026 


.0193 


6 


.1963 


1.469 


1/2 


.8522 


6.375 


% 


.0031 


.0230 


1/4 


.2131 


1.594 


13 


.9218 


6.895 


\% 


.0036 


.0269 


1/2 


.2304 


1.724 


1/2 


.994 


7.436 


% 


.0042 


.0312 


% 


.2485 


1.859 


14 


1.069 


7.997 


M 


.0048 


.0359 


7 


.2673 


1.999 


1/2 


1.147 


8.578 


1 


.0055 


.0408 


14 


.2867 


2.145 


15 


1.227 


9.180 


% 


.0085 


.0638 


1/2 


.3068 


2.295 


1/2 


1.31 


9.801 


Vi 


.0123 


.0918 


% 


.3276 


2.45 


16 


1.396 


10.44 


% 


.0167 


.1249 


8 


.3491 


2.611 


1/2 


1.485 


11.11 


2 


.0218 


.1632 


1/4 


.3712 


2.777 


17 


1.576 


11.79 


Va. 


.0276 


.2066 


1/2 


.3941 


2.948 


1/^2 


1.67 


12.49 


y^ 


.0341 


.255 


% 


.4176 


3.125 


18 


1.767 


13.22 


% 


.0412 


.3085 


9 


.4418 


3.305 


1/2 


1.867 


13.96 


3 


.0491 


.3672 


1^ 


.4667 


3.491 


19 


1.969 


14.73 


3€ 


.0576 


.4309 


1/2 


.4922 


3.682 


1/2 


2.074 


15.51 


y 


.0668 


.4998 


% 


.5185 


3.879 


20 


2.182 


16.32 


% 


.0767 


.5738 


10 


.5454 


4.08 


22 


2.640 


19.75 


4 


.0873 


.6528 


1/i 


.573 


4.286 


25 


3.409 


25.50 



To find contents of larger pipe than given above. 

Take 1/2 the size and multiply by 4, or take 14 the size and multiply by 
16, thus; contents of pipe 30 inches diameter = 9.180 (contents of 15 inch 
pipe) X 4 = 36.72 gallons. 

Contents of pipe 50 inches diameter = 8522 (contents of 12K inch 
pipe) X 16 = 13.6352 cubic inches. 

Cubic inches in a gallon = 231. 

Gallons in a cubic foot = 7.4805. 

A cubic foot of water = 621/3 lbs. usually taken at 623^ lbs. 

Weight of a gallon of water = SVs lbs. 



PIPE. 



309 



TABI,E OF FI^OW OF STiEAM THROUGH PlPi^S. 





Diameter of pipe in inches. Length of pipe = 240 times its diameter. 


>ure 
e. L 
sq.i 


H 1 


IK 2 1 2K 1 3 4 1 5 


6 


Press 
per 


Weight of steam per minute in pounds, with one pound loss 




of pressure. 


1 


1.16 


2.07 


5.7 


10.27 


15.45 


25.38 


46.85 


77.3 


115.9 


10 


1.44 


2.57 


7.1 


12.72 


19.15 


31.45 


58.05 


95.8 


143.6 


20 


1.70 


3.02 


8.3 


14.94 


22.49 


36.94 


68.20 


112.6 


168.7 


30 


1.91 


3.40 


9.4 


16.84 


25.35 


41.63 


76.84 


126.9 


190.1 


40 


2.10 


3.74 


10.3 


18.51 


27.87 


45.77 


84.49 


139.5 


209.0 


50 


2.27 


4.04 


11.2 


20.01 


30.13 


49.48 


91.34 


150.8 


226.0 


60 


2.43 


4.32 


11.9 


21.38 


32.19 


52.87 


97.60 


161.1 


241.5 


70 


2.57 


4.58 


12.6 


22.65 


34.10 


56.00 


103.37 


170.7 


255.8 


80 


2.71 


4.82 


13.3 


23.82 


35.87 


58.91 


108.74 


179.5 


269.0 


90 


2.83 


5.04 


13.9 


24.92 


37.52 


61.62 


113.74 


187.8 


281.4 


100 


2.95 


5.25 


14.5 


25.96 


39.07 


64.18 


118.47 


195.6 


293.1 


120 


3.16 


5.63 


15.5 


27.85 


41-93 


68.87 


127.12 


209.9 


314.5 


150 


3.45 


6.14 


17.0 


30.37 


45.72 


75.09 


138.61 


228.8 


343.0 



Elevation of l/ocalities Above the I^evel of the Sea. 



Locality. 


Feet. 


Locality. 


Feet. 


Tunnel, C. &. O. R. R., Peru... 

City of Potosi, Bolivia 

Lake Titicaca, Peru 

City ofCuzco, Peru 


..15,645 
.13,330 
..12,846 
..11,380 
..10,883 
.. 9,543 
.. 9,343 
.. 8,732 
.. 8,242 

. 7,963 
.. 7,852 
.. 7,471 
.. 7.200 
., 7,042 
.. 6.395 

. 6,360 
.. 6.216 
.. 6,041 
.. 6,000 
.. 6,000 
.. 5,866 
.. 5,000 
.. 4.340 

. 4.340 
.. 4,220 

. 4,137 


Pyramid Lake, Nevada 

City of Jerusalem, Syria 

" Madrid, Spain 

Munich, Bavaria... 

Lake Neufchatel, Switzerland.. 

Gibraltar, Spain 

Lake Lucerne, Switzerland 

" Zurich, " 

" Constance, " 

City of Geneva, 

Moscow. Russia 

Lake Superior, U. S 

City of Lima. Peru 

Lake Michigan, U. S 

'■ Huron, " 


..4,000 
..2,730 
..1,995 
..1,764 
..1,437 
..1,400 
..1,380 
..1,363 
..1,250 
..1,230 
.. 928 
.. 627 
600 


" Quito, Ecuador 

" Chuquisaca. Bolivia... 

" Bogota, Columbia 

" Sherman, Wj'oming:.... 
Hospice Gt. St. Bernard, Alps 
City of Arequipa, Peru 

" Mexico, Mexico 

" Pueblo " 


" Summit. California.... 
" Valladoiid, Mexico 


.. 587 
574 


" Cabul. Afghanistan... 
Lake Tahoe, California 


Erie. " 

" Ontario, " 


.. 555 

282 


City of Cheyenne, Wvoming... 

Popayan, Colombia... 

Kelat.Beloochistan.... 

" Truckee, California.... 

Cashmere, India 

" Jalapa, Mexico 

Ogden, Utah 

Great Salt Lake, Utah 


City of Paris, France 

•' San Jose, California 

" London. England 

" Sacramento, Cal 

Depression. 
Caspian Sea, Europe and Asia. 

Lake Gennesaret , Syria 

Dead Sea, Syria 


.. 115 

.. 114 

64 

.. 56 

83 
.. 653 


City of Teheran, Persia 


..1,317 



'The Surface of the Earth as to inequalities can be illustrated as follows: The 
equatorial diameter of the earth is about 7,925 miles. The highest mountain of 
the earth is Mount Everest, which has an altitude of 29.002 feet. An elevation of 
one-sixteenth of an inch on the surface of a globe, seven and one-half feet in diam- 
eter, is in the same proportion. 



310 



PIPE. 













































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to - !m' CO j 


/ 


00 ■(mIos X X 
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in 


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in 


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t- in 
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•1 







PIPE. 



311 



Although the combined area of four 8-inch pipes is equal to that of one 
16-inch pipe, the four small pipes will not convey as much air as the large 
one, at the same pressure, on account of the increased friction; it will really 
require 5.7 8-inch pipes. 

To find from table how many pipes of smaller diameter will convey at 
a given pressure the same amount of air as one of greater diameter, find 
the diameter of large pipe in first vertical column, and follow along 
horizontally until reaching the column headed by the diameter of the 
small pipes, and the required number will be found. 

The pressure or densitj^ of a blast is usually denoted by the height of a 
column of mercur3^ or water which it will sustain. At a temperature of 60 
degrees, 1 ounce pressure per square inch equals a column of mercury 
.1273 inches high, or, a column of water 1.729 inches high. Or, 1 pound 
pressure per square inch equals a column of mercury 2.0376 inches high, 
or a column of water 27.671 inches high. 

l/oss of Heat from Steam Pipes. 

Table of mone\^ loss from 100 feet of naked steam pipe, for one year of 
3,000 working hours. The temperature of the air surrounding the pipe is 
taken at 70 degrees. It is further assumed that 10 pounds of water, " at 
and from 212 degrees " are evaporated by one pound of coal, and, finally, 
that the value of coal is $6 per ton of 2,000 pounds. 

The outside surface of straight pipe, is that on which the calculations 
are based. 



NOMINAL 


STEAM PRESSURES. 


DIAMETER 














OF PIPE. 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


1 


$13.15 


$13.70 


$14.20 


$14.66 


$15.08 


$15.47 


1'4 


16.58 


17.29 


17.92 


18.49 


19.02 


19.51 


1^ 


18.98 


19.78 


20.51 


21.17 


21.77 


22.33 


2 


23.72 


24.73 


25.63 


26.45 


27.21 


27.91 


2y, 


28.72 


29.94 


31.03 


32.03 


32.94 


33.79 


3 


34.97 


36.45 


37.78 


38.99 


40.10 


41.14 


4 


44.96 


46.86 


48.57 


50.13 


51.56 


52.89 


5 


55.57 


57.92 


60.04 


61.96 


63.73 


65.38 


6 


66.27 


69.08 


71.60 


73.89 


76.01 


77.96 



To find the head in feet due to friction, in a pipe running full. 

Rule: Multiply the length of the pipe in feet, by the square of the 
number of gallons per minute, and divide the product by 1,000 times the 
5 th power of the diameter of the pipe in inches. The quotient, less 10 per 
cent, is the head in feet necessary to overcome the friction. 



Table of sth Powers. 



Diameter 
1.00... 
1.25... 
1.50... 



Diameter ^ 
1.0 
3.0 
7.6 



312 PIPE. 

Diameter. Diameter ^ 

1.75 16.4 

2.00 , 32.0 

2.50 97.6 

3.00 243.0 

3.50 525.0 

4.00 , 1,024.0 

4.50 1,845.3 

5.00. •. 3,125.0 

5.50 5,032.8 

6.00 7.776.0 

7.00 16,807.0 

8 00 , 32,768.0 

9.00 59,049.0 

10.00 100,000.0 

12.00 248,832.0 

14.00 525,324.0 

16.00 1,048,576.0 

Example: A pipe 4 inches in diameter and 4,000 feet long, is to deliver 
200 gallons per minute, what head of water in feet is equivalent to the 
friction ? 

4,000 X 40,000 j^gg ^Q ^^^^ ^ ^gg — 15 = 141 feet.— Ans. 
1,000X1,024 

The resistance to the flow of water through pipes, is as the square of 
the velocity. 

Spiral Riveted Steam Pipe. 

Approximate Approximate 

Bursting pressure per weight per 
Diameter. Gauge. square inch. foot. 

Pounds. Pounds. 

3 in No. 18 1300 1% 

4 " " 1000 2y2 

5 " " 800 3 

6 " No. 16 800 434 

7" " 700 5V2 

8 " No. 14 800 8V2 

9 " " 750 91/2 

10 " " 650 IOV2 

11 " " 600 IIV2 

12" " 550 13y2 

13" '• 500 141/2 

14 " " 470 15V2 

15 " " 450 17 

16 " " 400 1834 

18 " " 370 21 

28 " " 300 23 



313 



Bursting Pressures of Spiral Riveted Steam Pipe. 

Diameter. Bursting pressure per square inch. 

3 in 500 to 1300 pounds. 

4 " 400tol000 

5 " 350to 800 

6 " 300 to 800 

7 " 250 to 700 

8 " 225to 800 

9 " 200to 750 

10 " 175to 650 

11 " 150to 500 

12 " 140to 550 

From 13 to 20-inch bursting pressures range from 500 to 350 pounds 
to the square inch, according to diameter and gauge. 

Spiral Riveted Steam Pipe. 

Table of Iron and Rivets required for Punched and Formed Sheets. 



Number of square feet of iron required to make 100 


Approximate num- 


lineal feet punched and formed sheets when put to- 


ber of rivets 1 in. 


gether. 


apart, required for 


100 lineal feet of 
punched and 








Diameter. 


Width of Lap. 


Square Feet. 


formed sheets. 


3 inch. 


1 inch. 


90 


1600 


4 " 


1 


116 


1700 


5 •' 


iy2 " 


150 


1800 


6 " 


1V2 " 


178 


1900 


7 " 


11/2 " 


206 


2000 


8 " 


1V2 " 


234 


2200 


9 " 


2 


260 


2300 


10 " 


2 


295 


2400 


11 " 


2 


323 


2500 


12 " 


2 


349 


2600 


13 " 


2 


379 


2700 


14 " 


2 


405 


2800 


15 " 


2 


434 


2900 


16 " 


2 


46-3 


3000 


18 " 


2 


517 


3200 


20 " 


2 


573 


3500 


22 " 


2 


630 


3700 


24 " 


2 " 


683 


3900 


26 •♦ 


2 


740 


4100 


28 " 


2 " 


795 


4400 


30 " 


2 " 


850 


4600 



Green-sand iron castings are 6 per cent, stronger than dry sand, and 
30 per cent, stronger than chilled; but when castings are chilled and an. 
nealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over green sand castings. 



314 



PIPE. 



tn 






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o 
o 



To ^ 



<u 


4J 


^ 


O 




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B 


o 


+j 


^ 


;^ 




(N 


Cfl 


m 


i< 


i> 


O 


s 


^ 


+J 


W 
1 


Tf* 


1 


tn 


u 


(U 


a 


tn 


Ph 


O 


g 


o 


cd 


• .^ 


<u 


<u 


r/^ 


a 


-o 


a 


4-> 


o 


0^ 




> 


o 


fii 


^ 


_^ 


D 


s 


o 


Oi 


t4-l 


C/3 


o 


Ui 


4-> 


O 


^ 




W) 






^ 


g 






■4J 




-M 








to 




H-l 




o 




-M 




^ 




bfl 








a> 




^ 




,__ 




CC 




C 








S 




o 




:z; 





315 



Boiler Feed or Pressure Pumps. 

SIZES AND CAPACITIES. 



1 

a 


1 




I. 


Capacity per minute at 




'i 




p. 




^■^ 
oj « 






2 


It 
=3^ 


ordinary speed. 











CO « 

2 =" 
.2 <^ 




00 


^ 


^ 







CO 


pi 


CO 


Q 


Em 


n 


2H 


IH 


3 


.023 


150 Strokes. 3% gals. 


Ji 


% 


Vi 


9^ 


17x 5 




3 


IM 


3 


.031 


150 " 4% •' 




% 


% 


1/2 


18x 5 




SH 


2* 


4 


.05 


150 " 71/2 " 


14 


% 


1^4 


1 


26x 6 


25 


3H 


2M 


4 


.07 


150 " 101/2 " 


'A 


% 


1^4 


1 


28x 7 


40 


4 


24 


5 


.11 


150 " I6V2 " 


V2 


% 


IJi 


1 


31x 8 


60 


5 


3^ 


7 


.25 


125 " 31 


\ 


1 


2 


l!/2 


44x13 


90 


5»4 


38 


7 


.35 


125 " 42 


%. 


1 


2 


14 


45x14 


130 


7 


4* 


7 


.39 


125 " 49 " 




1^ 


2^2 


2 


45x14 


160 


7 


41/2 


10 


.69 


100 " 69 




1^ 


3 


2!/2 


55x16 


200 


7H 


5 


10 


.85 


100 •' 85 " 




iH 


3 


21/2 


55x16 


250 


8 


5 


12 


1.02 


100 '• 102 




iH 


4 


4 


67x19 


300 


10 


6 


12 


1.47 


100 " 147 " 


U4 


11/2 


4 


4 


67x19 


400 


12 


7 


12 


2.00 


100 " 200 " 


2 


21/2 


5 


5 


67x20 


600 


14 


8 


12 


2.61 


100 " 261 


2 


21/2 


5 


5 


67x20 




16 


10 


16 


5.44 


75 " 408 " 


2^ 


3 


6 


6 


80x22 




18 


12 


24 


11.75 


50 " 588 


31/2 


4 


8 


6 


110x27 




20 


14 


24 


16.00 


50 " 800 " 


34 


4 


10 


8 


111x29 





BESSBM^R STBBI/. 



This process of making steel consists in melting several tons of pig 
iron, as free as possible from sulphur and phosphorus, in a cupola, and al- 
lowing it to run into a huge vessel called a "converter," which is supported 
b3' two trunnions to allow of its being easily tilted. Air is driven through 
the molten mass, through the bottom of the converter, causing it to bubble 
and boil, and producing a most intense combustion. The object is to burn 
out all the carbon in the iron, and purify it of all dirt, etc. The blowing 
process takes about 20 minutes. When the iron is rid of its carbon, and 
purified, the blast is shut off, and a certain quantity of "spiegeleisen" and 
silex is added in a molten state to convert the mass of quiescent molten pig 
iron in the converter into steel. It requires an expert to determine when 
the blast is to be shut off. The molten mass (now steel) is poured into 
molds to form ingots. 

"Spiegeleisen" is pig iron rich in carbon and manganese. The ingots 
are re-heated and then hammered into billets. The billets are re-heated and 
rolled into rails, etc. 



316 



PUMPS. 



Tank or Ifight Service Pumps. 

These pumps are principally used at railroad water stations, gas and 
oil works, bleacheries, tanneries, refineries, plantations, distilleries, etc. A 
variety of valves are used adapted for pumping hot, cold, thick, thin, alka- 
line or other liquids. 

For quarries and clay pits, also for coffer dams, tunnels, foundation 
pits, ore beds, sewerage and irrigating purposes, these pumps are especially 
adapted, having large water passages and valve openings. 

SIZES AND CAPACITIES. 



1 


1 


s 






i 










.g 


.9 


J3 








aj 




a; 




"S^ 


'>> 


g 






ii 


B 


s. 


.2* 


Floor Space 


^^ 


^« 


'"' 


P. . 


Capacity per minate at 


ft 


-4J QD 


"^rL 




Required. 




u^ 


s 


«l 


ordinary speed. 


a 


S.S 


§^ 




Inches. 


0) 


M 


° 2 




OS « 


•rz 


> 




s (=> 


% ^ 





^i^ 




C3 


.a fl 


« G 


:= fl 




-2'-' 


^" 


(-C 


S3 aa 




-2 


W" 


o'"' 


0)1-1 




DO 


^ 







CD 


W 


m 


a 




3^ 


334 


4 


.15 


125 Strokes, 18 gals. 


Vz 


% 


IH 


134 


28 xlO 


4 


4 


5 


.27 


125 " 33 •' 


v% 


Va 


2 


1^2 


34 xU 


5 


4 


7 


.39 


125 " 49 " 


% 


1 


23/2 


2 


44 xl2 


51/2 


51/2 


7 


.72 


125 " 90 " 


% 




3 


23/2 


44 X13I/4 


6 


5% 


7 


72 


125 " 90 " 






3 


21/2 


44 XI31/2 


6 


6 


12 


l!47 


100 " 147 " 


% 




4 


4 


6654x19 


6 


7 


12 


2.00 


100 " 200 " 






5 


5 


66Mxl9 


m 


7 


10 


1.66 


100 " 166 " 




m 


5 


5 


56^2X19 


7% 


71/2 


10 


1.91 


100 " 191 " 




134 


5 


5 


561/2x19 


8 


6 


12 


1.47 


100 " 147 " 


1 


134 


4 


4 


662£xl9 


8 


7 


12 


2.00 


100 " 200 " 




134 


5 


5 


66^x19 


8 


8 


12 


2.61 


100 " 261 " 




134 


5 


5 


66^x20 


8 


9 


13 


3.30 


100 " 330 " 




13€ 


6 


6 


66^x21 H 


8 


10 


12 


4.08 


100 " 408 " 




134 


6 


6 


6654x211/2 


10 


10 


12 


4.08 


100 " 408 " 


13i 


1^2 


6 


6 


66i5£x2H4 


10 


10 


16 


5.44 


75 " 408 " 


m 


IK2 


6 


6 


78^x211^ 


10 


12 


12 


5.87 


100 " 587 " 


134 


X^ 


8 


6 


663^x2334 


10 


12 


16 


7.83 


75 " 587 " 


134 




8 


6 


781/2x235^ 


12 


10 


12 


4.08 


100 " 408 " 


2 


23I 


6 


6 


6624x211/2 


12 


10 


16 


5.44 


75 " 408 " 


2 


234 


6 


6 


78^x211/2 


12 


12 


12 


5.87 


100 " 587 " 


2 


23/2 


8 


6 


663£x235£ 


12 


13 


16 


7.83 


75 " 587 " 


2 


21/2 


8 


6 


781/2x2354 


14 


12 


12 


5.87 


100 " 587 " 


2 


21/2 


8 


6 


66^x2354 


14 


12 


16 


7.83 


75 " 587 " 


2 


2^2 


8 


6 


78i/2X^?£ 


14 


14 


16 


10.66 


75 " 800 " 


2 


21/2 


10 


8 


78i/ax27 


14 


14 


Zi 


16.00 


50 " 800 " 


2^2 


3 


10 


8 


108 x27 


14 


16 


16 


14.92 


75 " 1020 " 


2^2 


3 


12 


10 


80 X351/2 


14 


16 


24 


20.88 


50 " 1044 " 


2^2 


3 


12 


10 


108 X35J4 


16 


14 


16 


10.66 


75 " 800 " 


2^2 


3 


10 


8 


781/2x27 


16 


14 


24 


16.00 


50 " 800 " 


2^2 


3 


10 


8 


108 x27 


16 


16 


16 


14.92 


75 " 1020 " 


2!/2 


3 


12 


10 


80 X351/2 


16 


16 


24 


20.88 


50 " 1044 " 


21/2 


3 


12 


10 


108 X351/2 


16 


18 


24 


26.44 


50 " 1322 " 


21/2 


3 


12 


10 


108 x38 


16 


£0 


24 


32.64 


50 " 1632 " 


21/2 


3 


14 


12 


108 x40 


18 


16 


24 


20.88 


50 " 1044 " 


31/2 




12 


10 


110 X351/2 


18 


18 


24 


26.44 


50 " 1322 " 


31/2 




12 


10 


110 x38 


18 


20 


24 


32. 6i 


50 " 1632 " 


3^/2 




14 


12 


110 x40 


18 


22 


24 


39.50 


50 " 1975 " 


31/2 


4 


14 


14 


110 x42 


20 


18 


24 


26.44 


50 " 1322 " 


3H 




12 


10 


118 x38 


20 


20 


24 


32.64 


50 " 1622 " 


3^2 




14 


12 


118 x40 


20 


22 


24 


39.50 


50 " 1975 " 


31/2 




14 


14 


118 x42 


20 


24 


24 


47.00 


50 " 2350 " 


3^2 




16 


16 


118 x44 



A unit of work is the labor requisite to raise one pound through the 
space of one foot. 



PUMPS. 



317 



DUPLEX ST^AM PUMPS. 

For Water Pressure Not iExceeding 150 lbs. Speed from 50 to 
100 feet per Minute. 



s 


5 

a 


6 







er Strokes per 
lute of one 
inger,varying 
h kind of 
rk and Pres- 
e. 


ered 
by 
ers, 
mber 




« 


acement 
onsperst 
ne Plung 


ns deliv 
minute 
;h Plung 
stated nu: 
Strokes. 


ecu 


1^ 


g 


ill 


2 SOh ^ ^ S 


-^ a^ CO 


s 


s 


^ 


Q 


eu 





3 


2 


3 


.04 


100 to 250 


8 to 20 


4V2 


234 


4 


.10 


100 to 200 


20 to 40 


5V4. 


31/2 


5 


.20 


100 to 200 


40 to 80 


6 


4 


6 


.33 


100 to 150 


70 to 100 


71/2 


41/2 


6 


.42 


100 to 150 


85 to 125 


71/2 


5 


6 


.51 


100 to 150 


100 to 150 


71/2 


41/2 


10 


.69 


75 to 125 


100 to 170 


9 


51/4 


10 


.93 


75 to 125 


135 to 230 


10 


6 


10 


1.22 


75 to 125 


180 to 300 


10 


7 


10 


1.66 


75 to 125 


245 to 410 


12 


7 


10 


1.66 


75 to 125 


245 to 410 


14 


7 


10 


1.66 


75 to 125 


245 to 410 


12 


81/2 


10 


2.45 


75 to 125 


365 to 610 


14 


81/2 


10 


2.45 


75 to 125 


365 to 610 


16 


8V2 


10 


2.45 


75 to 125 


365 to 610 


I8V2 


81/2 


10 


2.45 


75 to 125 


365 to 610 


20 


8y2 


10 


2.45 


75 to 125 


365 to 610 


12 


IOV4 


10 


3.57 


75 to 125 


530 to 890 


14 


101/4 


10 


3.57 


75 to 125 


530 to 890 


16 


1014 


10 


3.57 


75 to 125 


530 to 890 


I8V2 


101/4 


10 


3.57 


75 to 125 


530 to 890 


20 


1014 


10 


3.57 


75 to 125 


530 to 890 


14 


12 


10 


4.89 


75 to 125 


730 to 1220 


16 


12 


10 


4.89 


75 to 125 


730 to 1220 


I81/2 


12 


10 


4.89 


75 to 125 


730 to 1220 


20 


12 


10 


4.89 


75 to 125 


730 to 1220 


ISVa 


14 


10 


6.66 


75 to 125 


990 to 1660 


20 


14 


10 


6.66 


75 to 125 


990 to 1660 


17 


10 


15 


5.10 


50 to 100 


510 to 1020 


20 


12 


15 


7.34 


50 to 100 


730 to 1460 


20 


15 


15 


11.47 


50 to 100 


1145 to 2290 


25 


15 


15 


11.47 


50 to 100 


1145 to 2290 



If 3f times the difference between the diameter of cylinder and the out- 
side diameter of a cast iron piston ring, be cut out of same, it will go into 
the cvHnder when cold. In the case of brass rings, more should be cut out, 
as brass expands more than cast iron. 

See table of expansion of metals. 



318 



PtMPg. 



Centifugal Pumps. 



Diameter of dis- 
charge Opening 
in Inches. 


Economical capac- 
ity in Gallons per 
Minute. 


Actual capacity 

in Gallons per 

Minute. 


Horse power re- 
quired for each 

foot of lift, Min- 
imum Quantity. 


IV2 • 


20 to 40 


160 


.01 


1% 


40 to 60 


225 


.016 


2 


60 to 80 


325 


.019 


21/2 


80 to 100 


400 


.039 


3 


120 to 180 


675 


.047 


4 


200 to 300 


1300 


.078 


5 


350 to 500 


1900 


.14 


6 


500 to 700 


2700 


.22 


8 


900 to 1300 


4800 


.34 


10 


1600 to 2200 


7500 


.64 


12 


2000 to 3000 


10500 


.88 


15 


3000 to 5000 


16500 


1.20 


18 


5000 to 7000 


22000 


1.80 


22 


7000 to 10000 


35000 


2.90 



Steam Jet Pumps. 



Size of 


Suction 


Discharge 


Steam 


Steam 


Capacity 


Pump. 


Pipe. 


Pipe. 


Pipe. 


Opening. 


Per Minute. 


'% inch. 


% inch. 


1/2 inch. 


% inch. 


3-16 


8 galls. 


1 


1 


% " 


1/2 " 


4-16 


15 " 


11/4 " 


114 " 


1 


1/2 " 


5-16 


20 " 


11/2 " 


11/2 " 


11/4 " 


% " 


6-16 


30 " 


2 


2 


11/2 " 


% " 


7-16 


40 " 


21/2 " 


21/2 " 


2 


1 


8-16 


50 " 


3 


3 


21/2 " 


1 


9-16 


60 " 



Tempera,ture of Different Altitudes as shown by Observations 

in Balloons. 



Altitude. 


Gay-Lussac 
and Biot. 


Welsh and 
Green. 


Glasier and Coxwell. 


1,000 ft. 


1804. 
Sept. 16. 


1862. 
Nov. 10. 


1862. 
July 17. 


1862. 
Sept. 5. 


1863. 
April 18. 





87.4 


50.0 


50.0 


59.5 
56.0 


61.0 


1 


59.2 


2 








57.0 


3 










51.0 


4 




45.0 


45.0 


45.0 
41.0 
36.5 
40.0 


48.2 


5 




44.2 


6 





35.8 


35.8 


40.1 - 


•7 




35.9 


•^ 




32.5 


32.5 




9 








10 


54.4 
52.0 
47.5 


26.0 


26.0 


32.0 
31.2 


32.0 


11 




12!."" 


26.0 


26.0 


31.0 



PUMPS. 



319 



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PUMPS. 



Fire Streams. 

Table showing the pressure required at pump and at nozzle, with 
smooth 1 inch, and li/i-inch nozzles, and 2K-inch rubber hose. 



SIZE OF NOZZLE 



Pressure at nozzle 

Pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 

feet and 21/2-inch rubber hose 

Gallons per minute 

Distance thrown, horizontal 

Distance thrown, vertical 



1 INCH. 



40 



60 



48 73 

155 189 

109 I 142 

79 i 108 



80 

97 
219 
168 
131 



SIZE OF NOZZLE. 

Pressure at nozzle 

Pressure at pump or hydrant with 100 

feet and 2V2-inch rubber hose 

Gallons per minute 

Distance throw^n, horizontal 

Distance thrown, vertical 





1¥ 


INCH. 


40 


60 


80 


61 

242 
118 

82 


92 
297 
156 
115 


123 
342 
186 
142 



100 

121 
245 
186 

148 



100 

154 
383 
207 
164 



To £nd the Horse-Power of Boikr necessary to run a steam pump. 

Data necessary to computation. 

Diameter of water cylinder. 

Stroke of water piston. 

Strokes of water piston per minute. 

Gallons of water raised per minute. 

Height, vertical, from surface of water to be raised, to water cylinder, 
in feet. Height, vertical, from water cylinder to point of delivery, in feet. 

Note: A column of water 2^q feet high, weighs one pound per square 
inch. 

First Rule: Divide the total lift of water in feet (measuring vertically 
from surface of water in well or pond, to point of delivery) by 2. Allow 
the j^o for friction. Then multiply this quotient by the area of water piston 
and this product by speed of piston, in feet per minute. Add 20 per cent 
for friction a7id waste of steam, and divide the sum by 33,000. The quo- 
tient will be the horse power of boiler required. 

Second Rule: Multiply the total lift in feet by the weight of water to 
be lifted per minute. One gallon of water weighs 8.33111 pounds. 

Add 25 per cent for friction, and an additional 10 per cent for waste 
of steam, and divide the sum by 33,000. 

Example: A steam pump with water cylinder 12 inches diameter, and 
12 inches stroke, making 100 strokes per minute is required to lift 587 
gallons of water per minute to a height of 80 feet above the pump. Dis- 
tance from pump to surface of w^ater in well 18 feet. 

Solution by first rule. 



98 



49 X 113 square inches = 5537 X 100 



for friction and steam waste = 664440 -4- 33,000 



: 553700 + 20 percent 
20 + h. p. 



321 



Solution b\' second rule. 

587 X 81/2 = 4-990 X 98 = 489020 foot pounds + 25 per cent for fric- 
tion = 611275 pounds + 10 per cent for steam waste = 672402 pounds 
H- 33,000 = 20 + h. p. 

Pump Notes. 

A cubic foot of pure, fresh water, at a temperature of 62 degrees Fahr. 
weighs 62.321 pounds avoirdupois. A uniform column of water one inch 

62.321 



square at the base and one foot high will weigh 



144 



.433 of a pound. 



A column of water 33.96 feet in height will weigh 33.96 X .433 = 
14.70 pounds. 

The pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea = 14.7 pounds 
per square inch. 

From the foregoing it will be seen that water cannot be raised by the 
pressure of the atmosphere much over 26 feet, and under the very best con- 
ditions not much over 28 feet. 



CAST IRON SASH WEIGHTS. 



Table showing the length of one pound of cast iron sash weights C)\ 
different diameters: 



Diameter. 


Length of 1 
lb. in inches. 


Length of 1 
lb. in inches. 


1 

1 Diameter. 


Length of liLength of 1 
lb. in inches lb. in inches. 

i 


INCHES. 


ROUND. 


SQUARE. 


INCHES. 


ROUND 


SQUAR2 




IRON. 


IRON. 




IRON. 


IRON 


K 


19.67 


15.38 


! 2% 


.86 


.68 


% 


12.63 


9.83 


21/2 


.78 


.60 


% 


8.69 


6.85 


2% 


.70 


.55 


% 


6.41 


5.02 


2% 


.64 


.50 


1 


4.44 


3.84 


278 


.59 


.46 


11/8 


3.87 


3.03 


3 


.54 


■ .42 


liA 


3.13 


2.45 


31/8 


.50 


.39 


1% 


2.58 


2.03 


31/4 


.46 


.36 


IH 


2.17 


1.70 


3% 


.42 


.33 


1% 


1.85 


1.45 


Sh 


.39 


.31 


1% 


1.59 


1.25 


3% 


.37 


.2i, 


1% 


1.39 


1.09 


33/4 


.34 


.27 


2 


1.22 


.96 


3% 


.32 


.25 


21/8 


1.08 


.85 


4 


.30 


.24 


21/4 


.96 


.75 









322 



PlATES. 



Table of Standard or Regular Tin Plates. 

Size and Kind of Plates — Number and Weight of Sheets in a Box, and Wire 
Gauge Thickness of Even- Kind and Size. 



Size. 


Grade. 


tj o 

Z CQ 


m O 




Size. 


Grade. 


i2 !^ 


w O 


|| 








2« 


*5 








3« 


^S 


10 by 10 


IC 


225 


78 


29 


13 by 13 


IC 


225 


130 


29 


<( 


IX 


225 


98 


27 


'• 


IX 


225 


164 


27 


a 


IXX 


225 


112 


26 


(( 


IXX 


225 


190 


26 


a 


IXXX 


225 


124 


25 


" 


IXXX 


225 


216 


25 


a 


IXXXX 


225 


140 


24K 


14 by 14 


IC 


225 


152 


29 


10 by 14 


IC 


225 


108 


29 


" 


IX 


225 


192 


27 


(( 


IX 


225 


136 


27 


" 


IXX 


225 


221 


26 


(( 


IXX 


225 


159 


26 


" 


IXXX 


225 


250 


25 


(( 


IXXX 


225 


178 


25 


" 


IXXXX 


225 


279 


241/2 


(( 


IXXXX 


225 


200 


24^ 


15 bv 15 


IX 


225 


221 


27 


10 bv 20 


IC 


225 


156 


29 


" 


IXX 


225 


255 


26 


" 


IX 


225 


196 


27 


(( 


IXXX 


225 


288 


25 


11 by 11 


IC 


225 


95 


29 


(C 


IXXXX 


225 


322 


243^ 


" 


IX 


225 


118 


27 


16 by 16 


IC 


225 


200 


29 


" 


IXX 


225 


135^ 


26"^ 


4i - 


IX 


225 


252 


27 


11 by 15 


SDC 


200 


164 


26 


" 


IXX 


225 


290 


26 


" 


SDX 


200 


185 


25 


" 


IXXX 


225 


328 


25 


" 


SDXX 


200 


206 


-243^ 


■ " - 


IXXXX 


225 


368 


24K 


(( 


SDXXX 


200 


226 


24 


17 by 17 


IX 


112 


140 


27 


(( 


SDXXXX 


200 


248 


23 


" 


IXX 


112 


162 


26 


22 by 15 


SDC 


100 


164 


26 


'<-. 


IXXX 


112 


184 


25 


(( 


SDX 


100 


185 


25 


" 


IXXXX 


112 


205 


243^ 


(( 


SDXX 
SDXXX 


100 
100 


206 
226 


24K 
24 


JL8 by. 18. 


IX 


112 


158 
182 


27. 


ii 


IXX 


112 


26 


(( 


SDXXXX 


100 


248 


23 


" 


IXXX 


112 


206 


25 


12V2byl7 


DC 


100 


96 


28 


" 


IXXXX 


112 


231 


24K 


n 


DX 


100 


124 


26 


22 by 22 


IXX 


56 


135 


26 


(( 


DXX 


100 


145 


24 


" 


IXXX 


56 





25 


>( 


DXXX 


100 


166 


23 


(( 


IXXXX 


56 





24 K 


(( 


DXXXX 


100 


185 


22 


24 bv 24 


IXX 


56 


157 


26 


15 by 21 


DX 


100 


183 


27 


'' 


IXXX 


56 




25 


(( 


DXX 


100 


214 


24 


(( 


IXXXX 


66 


'.'.'.'.'.'. 


24 >^ 


(( 


DXXX 


100 


245 


23 




(( 


DXXXX 
DC 


100 
50 


276 
96 


22 

28 


TERNE PLATES. 


25 by 17 


14 by 20 


IC 


112 


108 


29 


(( 


DX 


50 


124 


26 


1 


IX 


112 


136 


27 


(C 


DXX 


50 


145 


24 


i 20 by 28 


IC 


112 


216 


29 


" 


DXXX 


50 


166 


23 


" 


IX 


112 


272 


27 


(( 


DXXXX 


50 


185 


22 


20 by 200 


IC 




172 


29 


14 by 20 


IC 


112 


108 


29 


" 


IX 




216 


27 


(( 


IX 


112 


136 


27 




(( 


IXX 


112 


157 


26 


TIN TAGGERS. 


(( 


IXXX 


112 


178 


25 


10 by 14 1 J 450 J 1081 38 


(( 


IXXXX 


112 


200 


24 M 




(( 


IXXXXXX 


112 


240 


23K 


BLACK TAGGERS. 


12 by 12 


IC 


225 


108 


29 


10 by 14 




256 


108 


32 


(( 


IX 


225 


136 


27 


" 




300 


108 


34 


(( 


IXX 


225 


157 


26 


(( 




360 


108 


36 


(( 


IXXX 


225 


178 


25 


" 




450 


108 


38 



PLATES. 



323 



W:ISIGHT OF IRON, COPPER AND BRASS WIRE AND 

PIRATES. 

Diameters and Thickness Determined by American Gauge. 



V 




WEIGHT OF WIRE PER 1,000 


WEIGHT OF PLATES PER 


^ 






LIXEAL FEET. 






SQUARE 


FOOT. 





o3 


Size of 
Each 
No. 


















o 

o 
o 


1 Wi'ought 
Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


Wrought 
Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass 


Inch. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbe. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbe. 


0000 


.46000 


560.74 


566.03 


640.51 


605.18 


17.25 


17.48 


20.838 


19.688 


000 


.40964 


' 444.68 


448.88 


507.95 


479.91 


15.3615 


15.5663 


18.557 


17.533 


00 


.36480 


352.66 


355.99 


402.83 


380.67 


13.68 


13.8624 


16.525 


25.613 





.32486 


279.67 


282.30 


319.45 


301.82 


12.1823 


12.3447 


14.716 


13.904 


1 


.28930 


221.79 


223.89 


253.34 


239.35 


10.8488 


10.9934 


13.105 


12.382 


2 


.2.5763 


175.89 


177.55 


200.91 


189.82 


9.6611 


9.7899 


11.671 


11.027 


3 


.22942 


1 139.48 


140.80 


159.32 


150.52 


8.6033 


8.7180 


10.393 


9.8192 


4 


.20431 


1 110.62 


111.66 


126.35 


119.38 


7.6616 


7.7638 


9.2552 


8.7445 


5 


.18194 


87.720 


88.548 


100.20 


94.666 . 


6.822S 


6.9l3r 


8.2419 


7.787 


6 


.16202 


69.565 


70.221 


79.462 


75.075 


6.0758 


6.1568 


7.3395 


6.9345 


7 


.14428 


55.165 


55.685 


63.013 


59.545 


5.4105 


5.4826 


6.5359 


6.1752 


8 


.12849 


43.751 


44.164 


49.976 


47.219 


4.8184 


4.8826' 


5.8206 


5.4994 


9 


.11443 


34.699 


35.026 


39.636 


37.437 


4.2911 


4.3483 


5.1837 


4.8976 


10 


.10189 


27.512 


27 772 


31.426 


29.687 


3.8209 


3.8718 


4.6156 


4.3609 


11 


.090742 


21.820 


22.026 


24.924 


23.549 


3.4028 


3.4482 


4.1106 


3.8838 


12 


.080808 


17.304 


17.468 


19.766 


18.676 ! 


3.0303 


3.0707 


3.6606 


3.4586 


13 


.071961 


13.722 


13.851 


15.674 


14.809 


2.6985 


2.7345 


3.2598 


3.0799 


14 


.064084 


10.886 


10.989 


12.435 


11.746 


2.4032 


2.4352 


2.9030 


2.7428 


15 


.057068 


8.631 


8.712 


9.859 


9.315 


2.1401 


2.1686 


2.5852 


2.4425 


16 


.050820 


6.845 


6.909 


7.819 


7.587 


1.9058 


1.9312 


2.3021 


2.1751 


17 


.045257 


5.427 


5.478 


6.199 


5.857 


1.6971 


1.7198 


2.0501 


1.937 


18 


.040303 


4.304 


4.344 


4.916 


4.645 


1.5114 


1.5315 


1.8257 


1.725 


19 


.035890 


3.413 


3.445 


3.899 


3.6S4 


1.3459 


1.3638 


1.6258 


1.5361 


20 


.031961 


2.708 


2.734 


3.094 


2.920 


1.1985 


1.2145 


1.4478 


1.3679 


21 


.028162 


2.147 


2.167 


2.452 


2.317 


1.0673 


1.0816 


1.2893 


1.2182 


22 


.025347 


1.703 


1.719 


1.945 


1.838 


.95051 


.96319 


1.1482 


1.0849 


23 


.022571 


1.350 


1.363 


1.542 


1.457 


.84641 


.8577 


1.0225 


.96604 


24 


.020100 


1.071 


1.081 


1.223 


1.155 


.75375 


.7638 


.91053 


.86028 


25 


.017900 


0.8491 


0.8571 


.9699 


0.9163 


.67125 


.6802 


.81087 


.76612 


26 


.015940 


0.6734 


0.6797 


.7692 


0.7267 


.59775 


.60572 


.72208 


.68223 


27 


.014195 


0.5340 


0.5391 


.6099 


0.5763 


.53231 


.53941 


.64303 


.60755 


28 


.012641 


0.4235 


0.4275 


.4837 


0.4570 


.47404 


.48036 


.57264 


.54103 


29 


.011257 


0.3358 


0.3389 


.3835 


0.3624 


.42214 


.42777 


.50994 


.48180 


30 


.010025 


0.2663 


0.2688 


.3042 


0.2874 


.37594 


.38095 


.45413 


.42907 


31 


.008928 


0.2113 


0.2133 


.2413 


0.2280 


.3348 


.33926 


.40444 


.38212 


32 


.007950 


0.1675 


0.1691 


.1913 


.1808 


.29813 


.3021 


.36014 


.34026 


33 


.007080 


0.1328 


0.1341 


.1517 


.1434 


.2655 


.26904 


.3-2072 


.30302 


34 


.006304 


0.1053 


0.1063 


.1204 


1137 


.2364 


.2:3955 


.28557 


.26981 


35 


.005614 


.08366 


.08455 


.0956 


0.9015 


.21053 


.21333 


.25431 


.24028 


36 


.005000 


.06625 


.06687 


.0757 


.0715 


.1875 


.19 


.2265 


.2140 


37 


.004453 


.05255 


.05304 


.06203 


.0567 


.16699 


.16921 


.20172 


.19059 


38 


.003965 


.04166 


.04205 


. .04758 


.04496 


.14869 


.15067 


.17961 


.1697 


39 


.003531 


.03305 


.03a36 


.03755 


.03566 


.13241 


.13418 


.15995 


.15113 


40 


.003144 


.02620 


.02644 


.02992 


.02827 


.1179 


.11947 


.14242 


.13456 



SPI/ICING I^EATHER BEI/TS. 

The splicing of leather belts may be made as strong as the solid leather 
by dissolving Nelson's opaque gelatine in acetic acid, using just enough of 
the acid to dissolve the gelatine on a warm place on an oven or boiler; 
the splices, which should be made quite thin, are then pasted with the 
cement, brought together and cramped between two pieces of wood. For 
a series of joints, the belt should be laid out on the floor, each splice 
separately pasted and rubbed on top with a thin piece of wood, as much 
cement as possible being squeezed from between the joints. Leave over 
night until properly set. 



324 



PLATES— PISTON SPEEDS. 



Weight of a Square Foot of Cast and Wrought Iron, 
Copper and Brass. 

From one-sixteenth to one inch in thickness. 



Thickness. 


Cast Iron. 


Wrought Iron. 


Copper. 


Brass. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1^6 


2.346 


2.517 


2.89 


2.675 


% 


4.693 


5.035 


5.781 


5.35 


1% 


7.039 


7.552 


8.672 


8,025 


'4 


9.386 


10.07 


11.562 


10.7 


t^6 


11.733 


12.588 


14.453 


13.375 


% 


14.079 


15.106 


17.344 


16.05 


1% 


16.426 


17.623 


20.234 


18.725 


k 


18.733 


20.141 


23.125 


21.4 


1% 


21.119 


22.659 


26.016 


24.075 


% 


23.466 


25.176 


28.906 


26.75 


\l 


25.812 


27.694 


31.797 


29.425 


% 


28.159 


30.211 


34.688 


32.1 


M 


30 505 


32.729 


37.578 


34.775 


% 


32.852 


35.247 


40.469 


37.45 


If 


35.199 


37.764 


43.359 


40.125 


1 


37.545 


40.282 


46.25 


42.8 



Approximate 



Weights of Munt^ 
per Square Foot. 



Metal Plates 



% 



inch thick 10.76 lbs 

13.48 

16.25 

19.00 

21.65 

24.30 

27.12 

32.46 

37.85 

43.30 

Table of 



^ inch thick 48 

54 



1^ 

1% 
1% 

1% 
1% 
2 

21/4 

2V2 
3 

Piston Speeds. 



. 59 
65 
. 70 
, 75 
. 86 
. 97 
.108 
,129 



.69 lbs. 

.18 

.55 

.00 

.35 

.86 

.60 

.36 

.25 

.90 



REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 





In. 


50 


75 


100 


150 


200 


250 


300 


350 


400 






6 

8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
18 
20 
22 
24 
30 
36 
42 
48 
54 
60 
66 
72 














300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1000 

1100 

1200 


350 

466.7 
583>^. 

700. 

816.7 

933.3 
1050. 
1166.7 
1233.3 


400. 

533.3 

666 7 

800 

933.3 
1066.7 
1200. 
1333 3 
1466.7 


•+-> 

s 


<u 














c 














416.7 

500. 

583.3 

666.7 

750. 

833.3 

916.7 

1000. 

1250. 


s 


1— 1 










400. 
466.5 
533.4 
600. 
666.7 
733.3 
800. 
1000. 


u 


p 










^ 










400 
450 
500 
550 
600 
750 
900 










300. 

333.4 

366.7 

400. 

500. 

600. 

700. 

800. 






m 


166-7 

183.3 

200. 

250. 

300. 

350. 

400. 

450. 

500. 

550. 

600. 


250 
275 
300 
375 
450 
525 
600 
675 











« 


rC 








a 














UJ 


c 














c 


^ 
































s 










































PRESSURES. 



325 



TABIvB OF SAF:e WORKING STiJ^AM PR^SSUR^, 

For Iron Boilers of Various Si^es, Based Upon a Standard of 
One-Sixth of Tensile Strength of Plates. 



a! Ti 




LONGITUDINAL SEAMS. 


LONGITUDINAL SEAMS. 


u u 














SINGLE RIVETED. 


DOUBLE RIVETED. 


§ 






















B2 


01 


TENSILE 


STRENGTH 


3F If ON. 


TENSILE STRENGTH 


OF IRON. 


iJ ►: 


i 














45,000 lbs. 


50,000 lbs. 


55,000 lbs. 


45,000 lbs. 


50,000 lbs. 


55,000 lbs. 


S 

H 


Pressure. 


Pressure. 


Pressure. 


Pressure. 


Pressure. 


Pressure. 


M O 


"^" 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


36] 


104 


116 


127 


125 


139 


152 




130 


145 


159 


156 


174 


191 


38] 


% 


99 


110 


121 


119 


132 


145 


T*B 


123 


137 


151 


148 


164 


181 


40 


14 


94 


104 


115 


113 


125 


138 


IB 


117 


130 


143 


140 


156 


172 


42 


14 


89 


99 


109 


107 


119 


. 131 


T^B 


112 


124 


136 


134 


149 


163 


44 


14 


85 


95 


104 


102 


114 


125 


I'k 


107 


118 


130 


128 


142 


156 


46 


¥4 


82 


91 


100 


98 


109 


120 


I^B 


102 


113 


125 


122 


136 


150 


I 


% 


78 


87 


96 


94 


104 


115 


48-^ 


ft 


98 


109 


120 


118 


131 


144 


1 


118 


131 


144 


142 


157 


173 




% 


75 


83 


92 


90 


100 


110 


50- 


ft 


94 


104 


115 


113 


125 


138 




112 


125 


138 


134 


150 


166 




14 


72 


80 


88 


86 


96 


106 


52 


% 


90 


100 


110 


108 


120 


132 




108 


120 


132 


130 


144 


158 




i"b 


87 


96 


106 


101 


112 


122 


54- 


% 


104 


116 


127 


120 


134 


148 




I^B 


121 


135 


148 


140 


156 


172 






78 


87 


95 


94 


104 


114 


60 


94 


104 


115 


113 


125 


138 


1 


109 


121 


134 


131 


145 


160 


s 


85 


95 


104 


102 


114 


125 


G&\ 


/b 


99 


111 


121 


120 


133 


146 


\ 




112 


117 


138 


137 


152 


167 


\ 


% 


78 


87 


96 


94 


104 


115 


72-^ 


/e 


91 


102 


112 


110 


122 


134 




% 


102 


117 


128 


125 


140 


153 



To Compute Pressure for a given thickness and diameter, or thickness for a 
given pressure and diameter: 

For Pressure.— Rule: Multiply thickness of plate in inches, by one-sixth of 
tensile strength of metal, and divide product by radius or half diameter of shell in 
inches. For double riveted seams add one-fifth to result obtained by the rule. 

For Thickness. — Rule: Multiply pressure by radius of shell, and divide product 
by one-sixth of tensile strength of metal. 



To find the distance of thunder: Count the seconds between the flash 
and report, and multiply b\^ 1,142. The result will give the distance in 
feet. Sound flies at the rate of 1,142 feet per second. 



326 



INCLINED PLANES. 



For Different Initial Pressures f and Points of Cut-off. 
Non-condensing, t 





POINTS OF CUT-OFF IN PARTS OF PISTON STROKE. 




1^6 


^8 


i¥ij 


s 


M 




m 


% 


i% 


H 


40 


3.36 


6.35 


9.09 


13.85 


17.93 


21.46 


24.54 


25.94 


27.20 


31.63 


45 


5.01 


8.28 


11.27 


16.46 


20.92 


24.76 


28.13 


29.66 


31.03 


35.87 


50 


6.66 


10.20 


13.44 


19.07 


23.90 


28.07 


31.71 


33.37 


34.86 


40.10 


55 


8.31 


12.13 


15.62 


21.68 


26.88 


31.37 


35.30 


37.09 


38.69 


44.34 


60 


9.96 


14.05 


17.79 


24.29 


29.86 


34.68 


38.89 


40.80 


42.52 


48.57 


65 


LI. 62 


15.98 


19.97 


26.90 


32.85 


37.98 


42.48 


44.52 


46.35 


52.81 


70 


13.27 


17.90 


22.14 


29.51 


35.83 


41.28 


46.06 


48.23 


50.18 


57.04 


75 


14.92 


19.83 


24.32 


32.12 


38.81 


44.59 


49.65 


51.95 


54.01 


61.28 


80 


16.57 


21.75 


26.49 


34.73 


41.79 


47.89 


53.24 


55.66 


57.84 


65.51 


85 


18.22 


23.68 


28.67 


37.34 


44.78 


51.20 


56.82 


59.38 


61.67 


69.75 


90 


19.87 


25.60 


30.84 


39.95 


47.76 


54.50 


60.41 


63.09 


65.50 


73.98 


95 


21.52 


27.53 


33.02 


42.56 


50.74 


57.80 


64.00 


66.81 


69.33 


78.22 


100 


23.17 


29 45 


35.19 


45.17 


53.73 


61.10 


67.58 


70.52 


73.16 


82.45 



The above table represents the theoretic pressures obtained under the 
conditions given, neglecting the items of clearance and compression, which 
are varying amounts in diflferent engines, clearance having the effect of 
increasing, and compression of reducing, the mean, effective pressure. In 
practice, therefore, the mean effective pressure, as figured from the indicator 
diagram, is something less than the quantities given in the table. 

* The mean effective pressure is the average pressure in cylinder throughout the 
stroke. 

tThe pressure by gauge (or above the atmosphere) in the cyUnder at com- 
mencement of stroke. 

J If engine is worked condensing, 10 lbs. may be added to the figures given in 
table, as that additional amount may reasonably be expected from condenser. 



INCI.INBD PI,AN:eS. 

In order to enable users to ascertain the size of rope required, we sub- 
join two tables, by which the strain produced by any load can be easily 
calculated. 

Table 1. A body on an inclined plane will be supported by a weight 
which bears the same proportion to it that the height does to the length of 
the plane. Thus: Take an angle of 28°; we have here the length and height 
of the plane in the proportion of 1 to .46947; therefore, the weight that 
would support, say 2240 pounds, at this angle would be 

As 1 : .46947 : : 2240 : 1051.61 

This is what we call the "Gravity due to Inclines" in the table. The weight 
shown has been obtained by multiplying the number of pounds in a ton of 
2240 pounds, by the line of the different angles. The use of the figures will 
be exemplified as below: 



INCLINED PLANES. 



327 



Example: The weight of the cars, coal, rope, etc., which is pulled up a 
slope, whose angle is 26°, amounts to, say 70 cwt., or 7840 pounds. To 
how much weight is this equivalent lifted vertically, or what is the work- 
ing load of the rope, independent of friction? 

Opposite angle 26°, in column B, we find 981.94; then, as 

2240 : 981.94 : : 7840 : 3437 pounds. 

Then by referring to the "Table of the Weight and Strength of Ropes," we 
shall ascertain the size of rope required for the work. 

Table 2 gives the strain produced on a rope by a load of one ton of 
2000 pounds, an allowance of friction being made. An additional allow' 
ance for the weight of the rope will have to be made. 

Example: For an inclination of 50 feet in 100, corresponding to an 
angle of 26i/4°, a load of 2000 will produce a strain of the rope of 905 
pounds, and for a load of 7840 pounds the strain on the rope will be 

905 X 7840 

= 3547 

2000 

Note.— These tables have been given for tons of 2240 pounds and 2000 
pounds respectively. 

Table No. i. 



O CO 


Vertical 

Measure, 

Hypothenuse 

being A. 


Gravity 

due to Incline, 

per Ton, 

in pounds. 

B. 


Jco 


Vertical 

Measure, 

Hypothenuse 

being A. 


Gravity 

due to Incline, 

per Ton, 

in pounds. 

B. 


1 


.01745 


30.08 


22 


.37461 


839.12 


2 


.03490 


78.18 


23 


.39073 


875.23 


3 


.05224 


117.24 


24 


.40674 


911.09 


4 


.06976 


156.26 


25 


.42262 


946. 66 


5 


.08716 


195.24 


26 


.43837 


981.94 


6 


10453 


234.14 


27 


.45399 


1016.93 


7 


.12187 


272.98 


28 


.46947 


1051.61 


8 


.13917 


311.74 


29 


.48481 


1085.97 


9 


.15643 


350.40 


30 


.5 


1120.00 


10 


.17305 


388.97 


31 


.57504 


1153.68 


11 


.19081 


427.41 


32 


.52992 


1187.02 


12 


.20791 


465.71 


33 


.54464 


1219.99 


13 


.22495 


503.88 


34 


.55919 


1252.58 


14 


.24192 


541.90 


35 


.57358 


1284.81 


15 


.25822 


579.75 


36 


.58778 


1316.62 


16 


.27564 


617.43 


37 


.60181 


1348.05 


17 


.29237 


654.90 


38 


.61566 


1379.07 


18 


.30902 


692.20 


39 


.62922 


1409.67 


19 


.32557 


729.27 


40 


.64279 


1439 84 


20 


.34202 


760.12 


41 


.65006 


1469.57 


21 


.35837 


802.74 


.... 







328 



PULLEYS. 



Table No. 2. 



(U 


G 


Strain in lbs. 

on Rope 

for a load of 

2,000 lbs. 


1 L 


c 


Strain in lbs. 

on Rope 

for a load of 

2,000 lbs. 


Angle of El 
vation. 
Degrees 


li 


Angle of El 
vation. 
Degrees. 


II 

C3 


2% 


5 


112 


28 1 


55 


975 


5K 


10 


211 


31 


60 


1040 


8M 


15 


308 


33tS 


65 


1100 


:«ii 


20 


404 


35 


70 


1156 


14iS 


25 


497 


37 


75 


1210 


16% 


30 


586 


38^ 


80 


1260 


19i 


35 


673 


40M 


85 


1304 


21^ 


40 


754 


42 


90 


1347 


241^ 


45 


832 


43 K 


95 


1385 


26 K 


50 


905 


45 


100 


1419 



Factor of safety for inclines, 5; for hoisting in shafts, 7. That is, the 
working load of the rope should only be one fifth or one-seventh of its 
breaking strain. 



Table of Dimensions for Standard Pulleys. 



Diameter of 


Thickness of 


Thickness of Arm 


Thickness of Arm 


Pulley. 


Rim. 


at Rim. 


at Hub. 


6 inches. 


3\ 


It^g X h 


1¥ X K 


8 '' 


il 


1 X % 


1%X % 


10 " 


h 


1X9^ 


1%X % 


12 " 


h 


Ir'e X 1^6 


l/eX % 


14 " 


h 


lt^6 X h 


li^X % 


15 " 




lA- X h 


l/eX % 


16 " 


A 


1'4 X /e 


IK X n 


18 " 


M 


1% X /e 


i^x H 


20 " 


¥- 


1% X }4 


i%x U 


22 " 


% 


1% X % 


2 X % 


24 " 


Va 


l/e X H 


2% X \% 


26 " 


Ya 


IK X H 


2% X \% 


28 " 


h 


1% X U 


2% X 1 


30 " 


h 


IH X H 


2% X 1 


32 " 


h 


2 X % 


2% X IH 


34. •' 


% 


2ys X % 


2% X IK 


36 " 




2y X 11 


3 XlU 


38 '' 


h 


2% X \% 


3,^ X IM 


40 " 


h 


2% XI 


3K X Ih 


42 " 


y^ 


3^ XI Vs 


4 X 1^ 


48 " 


% 


^y XI h 


4H' X IJ-I 


52 " 


h 


3^ XI 'A 


4% X 1% 


60 " 


% 


3% XI h 


5M X 2 



The form of arm, covered by the figures in above table, is elliptic, and 
dimensions given in third and fourth columns are the longer and shorter 
diameter of arm. 



•ULLEYS— PAINTS. 329 



Speed of Pulleys. 

The diameter of the driven pulley being given to find its number of rev- 
olutions. 

Rule: Multiply the diameter of the driving pulley by its number of 
revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter of the driven pulley, 
the quotient will be its number of revolutions. 

The diameter and revolutions of the driver being given, to find the 
diameter of the driven, that shall make any given number of revolutions in 
the same time. 

Rule: Multiph' the diameter of the driver by its number of revolu- 
tions, and divide the product b}^ the number of revolutions of the driven; 
the quotient will be its diameter. 

To find the diameter of the driver. 

Rule: Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolu- 
tions which it is required to make, and divide the product by the revolu- 
tions of the driver; the quotient will be the size of the driver. 
In ordering pulleys observe the following data. 
Diameter of pulley. 
Face of pulley. 
Bore of pulley. 

Whether crowning, or straight face. 
Whether whole, or split pulle^^ 
Whether for single, or double belt. 
Whether keyed, or set-screwed. 
Whether cast iron, wrought rim, or wood split pulley. 

Hydrostatic Presses. 

To find the thickness of metal required for the cylinder of a hydro- 
static press to stand any given pressure. 

Rule: Multiph' the pressure on ram in tons per square inch, by half 
the diameter of cylinder in inches, and this product by .41 for cast iron; 
.22 for gun metal; .14 for wrought iron, and .6 for steel 

Example: What should be the thickness of walls of cylinder of a hy- 
drostatic press to withstand a pressure of 150 tons on a 9-inch ram? Ma- 
terial of c^'linder cast iron. 

Area of 9" ram = 64 sq. in. nearly. 

1 50 

= 2.34 tons per sq. m. pressure. 

2.34 X 41/2 = 10.53 X .41 = 4.32 inches thickness of walls. Ans. 

To Mix Different Colored Paints. 

Color. Mix Together. 

Brown Venetian red and lamp black. 

Buff White, yellow ochre, red. 

Chestnut Red, black, yellow. 

Chocolate Raw umber, red, black. 

Copper Red, yellow, black. 

Cream Same as buff, with more white. 



330 PAINTS — PAPERS. 



Color. Mix Together. 

Dove White, vermillion, blue, yellow. 

Fawn White, yellow, red. 

Flesh White, yellow ochre, vermilion. 

Freestone Red, black, yellow ochre, vermilion. 

French Gray White, prussian blue, lake. 

Gray White lead, black. 

Green (dark) Lampblack, chrome green 

Green (pea) White lead, yellow, red. 

Green (bronze) Chrome green, black, yellow 

Gold White, stone, ochre, red. 

Lead White lead, black. 

Lemon White, chrome yellow. 

Limestone White, yellow ochre, black, red. 

Olive Yellow, blue, black, white. 

Orange Yellow, red. 

Peach White, vermilion. 

Pearl White, black, blue. 

Purple Violet, red, white. 

Red White lead, vermilion, scarlet, lake, Venetian red, red. 

lead or burnt ochre. 

Rose White, madder, lake. 

Salmon White lead, blue, yellow, red. 

Sandstone White, yellow ochre, black, red. 

Snuff. Yellow, vandyke brown. 

Stone White lead, spruce ochre. 

Straw White lead, yellow. 

Violet Red, blue, white. 

Whatman's Drawing Papers. 

SIZES OF SHEETS. 

Antiquarian 52x31 inches. 

Double Elephant 40x27 

Atlas 34x26 

Colombier 34a'23 

Imperial 30x22 

Elephant 28x23 

Super-roj'^al 27x19 

Royal 23x19 

Medium 22x17 

Demy 20x15 



The diameter of boiler tubes in inches should be about % of their 
length in feet. For instance, a 3^^ diameter tube should be 3X48=144"-t- 
12^^=12 feet long. And 12 feet-i-4=3''=diameter of tube when the feet 
are changed to inches. 



RAILS. 



331 



Rails Required for One Mile of Single Track; 2,000 lbs. 
to the Ton. 



WEIGHT OF RAIL PER YARD. 
8 lbs 

12 ' 

16 " 

20 " 

25 " 

30 " 

35 " 



TONS PER MILE. 

14 tons 160 lbs. 

21 " 240 " 

28 " 320" 

35 " 400" 

44 " 

52 " 1,600" 

61 " 1,200" 



Rails Required for One Mile of Single Track; 2,240 lbs. 
to the Ton. 



WEIGHT OF RAIL 




TONS PER 


WEIGHT OF RAIL 


TONS PER 


PER YARD. 




MILE. 


PER YARD, 


MILE. 


8 lbs. 


12 


tons 1,280 lbs. 


45 lbs 


70 tons 1,600 lbs. 


10 " 


15 


" 1.600 " 


56 " 


88 




12 " 


18 


" 1,920 " 


60 " 


94 


640 " 


16 " 


25 


320 " 


62 " 


97 


960 " 


20 " 


31 


960 " 


64 " 


100 


' 1,280 " 


25 " 


39 


640 " 


65 " 


102 


320 " 


28 •' 


44 




68 " 


106 


' 1,920 " 


30 " 


47 


320 " 


70 " 


110 




35 " 


55 




72 " 


113 


320 " 


40 " 


63 


" 1,920 " 


76 " 


119 " 960 " 



I^OGGING RAII^ROAD. 

Rails and Fastenings Required Per Mile. 



TONS RAIL PER MILE 




(GROSS.) 


FASTENINGS PER MILE FOR DIFFERENT LENGTHS. 






w 


CO 


<« 


»2 


M 


vx 


^ 










<u 


-M 


4J 


<U 


<u 






FOR DIFFERENT WEIGHTS 
PER YARD. 




6 




1 




6 




6 


7^ 


1 


5 

X 




^ 


Z 


^ 


^ 


« 


12: 


K^T,,^ 


Tp 


CO 


12 lb. -18. 71 


35 lb.-55. 


18 ft 


587 


1,174 


2,348 


12 


11,740 


40 


27 


12 


16 lb. -25.14 


40 1b.-62.86 


20 ft 


528 


1,056 2,11211 


11.616 


40 


27 


12 


18 lb. -28.30 


45 lb.-70.71 


22 ft 


480 


9601,980;i0 


11,5201 40 


27 


12 


20 lb. -31. 43 


50lb.-78.57 


24 ft 


440 


8801,7601 9 


11,440' 40 


27 


12 


22 lb.-34.57 


56 lb.-88. 


26ft 


406 


812 1,624 


8 


11,372 40 


27 


12 


24 lb. -37.71 


58 lb.-91.14 


28 ft 


377 


754 1,508 


7V2 


11,314 40 


27 


12 


30 lb. -47. 14 


60lb.-94.30|30ft 


352 


704 1,408 


7 


11,2541 40 1 27 


12 



The standard taper for wrought iron gas, steam and water pipe, is % 
of an inch to the fgot. 



332 



RAILS — RODS, 



TAl 


BlvlS 


OF MIDDI^IS ORDINATBS FOR B:eNDING RAII^S. 


i 


1 


LENGTHS OF RAILS. 


1 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


12 


10 


8 


6 


Deg. 


Feet. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


FtT 


~Ft~ 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft7 




Ft. 


Ft. 


Ft" 


.5 


11480. 


.010 


.008 


.006 


.005 


.004 


.004 


.003 


.002 


.002 


.001 


.001 


.000 


.000 


1. 


5730. 


.020 


.016 


.013 


.011 


.009 


.008 


.006 


.005 


.004 


.003 


.002 


.001 


.001 


1.5 


3820. 


.029 


.026 


.021 


.018 


.016 


.013 


.010 


.008 


.006 


.004 


.003 


.002 


.001 


2. 


2865. 


.038 


.034 


.029 


.025 


.021 


.017 


.014 


.011 


.008 


.006 


.004 


.003 


001 


2.5 


2292. 


.049 


.043 


.037 


.031 


.027 


.022 


.018 


.014 


.010 


.007 


.005 


.003 


.002 


3. 


1910. 


.058 


.051 


.044 


.037 


.031 


.026 


.022 


.017 


.012 


.009 


.006 


.004 


002 


3.5 


1667. 


.070 


.061 


.052 


.043 


.037 


.031 


.025 


.020 


.015 


.011 


.008 


.0b5 


.003 


4. 


1433. 


.079 


.069 


.060 


.050 


.042 


.035 


.029 


.023 


.018 


.013 


.009 


.006 


.003 


4.5 


1274. 


.088 


077 


.067 


.056 


.047 


.039 


.032 


.026 


.020 


.015 


.010 


.007 


.004 


5. 


1146. 


.099 


.086 


.074 


.063 


.053 


.044 


.035 


.029 


.022 


.016 


.0111 


.007 


.004 


5.5 


1042. 


.108 


.094 


.082 


.070 


.0.59 


.048 


.039 


.032 


.024 


.018 


.012 1 


.008 


.004 


6. 


955.4 


.117 


.102 


.088 


.076 


064 


.052 


.042 


.034 


.026 


.019 


.013! 


.008 


.005 


6.5 


882. 


.128 


.112 


.097 


.082 


.069 


.057 


.046 


.037 


.028 


.021 


.014 1 


.009 


.005 


7. 


819. 


.137 


.120 


.104 


.089 


.074 


.061 


.049 


.039 


.030 


.022 


.015 


.010 


.005 


7.5 


764.5 


.146 


.127 


.111 


.094 


.079 


.065 


.053 


.042 


.032 


.024 


.016 


.010 


.006 


8. 


716.8 


.158 


.137 


.119 


.100 


.085 


.070 


.056 


.045 


.034 


.025 


.017 1 


.011 


.006 


8.5 


674.6 


.166 


.145 


.126 


.106 


.090 


.074 


.060 


.048 


.036 


.027 


.018 


.012 


.007 


9. 


637.3 


.175 


.153 


.133 


.112 


.095 


.078 


.063 


.050 


.038 


.029 


.019 


.012 


.007 


9.5 


603.8 


.187 


.163 


.141 


.119 


.101 


.083 


.067 


.054 


.042 


.031 


.021 


.013 


.003 


10 


573.7 


.196 


.171 


.148 


.125 


.106 


.087 


.071 


.057 


.045 


.032 


.022 


.014 


.008 


11 


521.7 


.216 


.188 


.163 


.139 


.117 


.097 


.077 


.063 


.049 


.036 


.024 


.016 


.009 


12 


478.3 


.236 


.206 


.179 


.151 


.128 


.105 


.085 


.069 


.053 


.039 


.026 


.017 


.010 


13 


441.7 


.2.54 


.222 


.192 


.163 


.138 


.113 


.092 


.075 


.057 


.042 


.028 


.019 


.010 


U 


410.3 


.275 


.239 


.207 


.175 


.148 


.122 


.099 


.080 


.061 


.045 


.030 


.020 


.011 


15 


383.1 


.295 


.257 


.223 


.188 


.159 


.131 


.106 


.085 


.065 


.049 


.033 


.021 


.012 


16 


359.3 


.313 


.273 


.236 


.200 


.170 


.139 


.113 


.091 


.070 


.052 


.035 


.023 


.013 


17 


338.3 


.333 


.290 


.2.52 


.213 


.180 


.148 


.120 


.096 


.074 


.055 


.037 


.024 


.014 


18 


319.6 


.351 


.306 


.265 


.225 


.190 


.156 


.127 


.102 


.078 


.058 


.039 


.025 


.014 


19 


302.9 


.371 


.324 


.280 


.238 


.201 


.165 


.134 


.108 


.082 


.061 


.(•41 


.027 


.015 


20 


287.9 


.392 


.341 


.296 


.250 


.212 


.174 


.141 


.114 


.087 


.066 


.044 


.028 


.016 


21 


274.4 


.410 


.357 


.309 


.262 


.222 


.182 


.148 


.120 


.091 


.069 


.046 


.030 


.017 


22 


262. 


.430 


.375 


.325 


.275 


.233 


.191 


.1.55 


.126 


.096 


.072 


.048 


.031 


.118 


23 


250 8 


.450 


.390 


.338 


.287 


.243 


.199 


.162 


.131 


.100 


.075 


.050 


.033 


.019 


24 


240.5 


.469 


.408 


.354 


.2^9 


.253 


.208 


.169 


.137 


.104 


.078 


.052 


.034 


019 


25 


231. 


.486 


.424 


.367 


.311 


.263 


.216 


.176 


.142 


.108 


.081 


.054 


.035 


.020 


26 


222.3 


.506 


.441 


.382 


.323 


.274 


.225 


.183 


.148 


.112 


.084 


.056 


.037 


.021 


27 


214.2 


.524 


.457 


.396 


.335 


.284 


.233 


.190 


.153 


.116 


.087 


.058 


.038 


.022 


28 


206.7 


.545 


.475 


.411 


.348 


.294 


.242 


.197 


.1.58 


.120 


.090 


.060 


.039 


,022 


29 


199.7 


.564 


.490 


.424 


.361 


.303 


.250 


.203 


.163 


.124 


.093 


062 


.041 


.023 



Weight of Round Copper and Brass Rods. 



COPPER. 



Diameter in 
Inches. 



% 
% 
% 
1 

1^ 
IK 
1% 
IX 
IH 
\% 
1% 
2 



Weight, per foot in 
length, in Pounds. 



.424 

.755 

1.17 

1.69 

2 31 

3.02 

3.82 

A..l\ 

5.71 

6.79 

7.94 

9.21 

10.61 

12.08 



BRASS. 



Diameter in 
Inches. 



% 
% 
% 
1 

IVs 
1'4 
1^ 
IK 

m 

1% 

2 



Weight, per foot in 
length, in Pounds. 



.411 
.731 
,13 

.64 
24 
.93 
.70 
4.56 
5.53 
6.57 
7.69 
8.92 
10.28 
11.70 



ROOFING. 



333 



Cost of Tin Roofing. 

The following table shows the cost per square and per square foot of 
tin roofing, laid with 14x20 tin, at prices from ^4 to ^12 per box. A 
square is 100 square feet. 

Flat Seam Roofing — Cost with 14x20 Tin. 



Price of Tin 
per Box. 

$4.25 

450 



Cost per Square 

of Flat Roof 

14x20 Tin. 



Cost per 
sq. Foot. 



$2.21 7^0221 

2.34 0234 

4.75 2.47 ,0247 



5.00. 
5.25. 
5.50. 
5.75. 
6.00. 
6.25. 
6.50 
6.75. 
7.00 
7.25. 
7.50. 
7.75. 
8.00. 



2.60 0260 

2.73 0273 

2.86 0286 

2.99 0299 

3.12 0312 

3.25 0325 

3.38 0338 

3.51 0351 

3.64 0364 

3.77 0377 

3.90 0390 

4.03 0403 

4.16 0416 



Price of Tin 
per Box. 



Cost per Square 

of Flat Roof 

14x20 Tin. 



$8.25 $4.29. 

8.50 4.42. 

8.75 4.55 

9.00 4.68. 

9.25 4.81. 

9.50 4.94. 

9.75 5.07. 

10.00 5.20 

10.25 5.33. 

10.50 5.46 

10.75 5.59. 

11.00 5.72. 

11-25 5.85. 

11.50 5.98. 

11-75 6.11. 

12.00 6.24. 



Cost per 
q. Foot. 

.0429 

.0442 

.0455 

.0468 

.0481 

.0494 

.0507 

.0520 

.0533 

.0546 

.0559 

.0572 

.0585 

.0598 

.0611 

.0624 



Standing Seam Roofing— Cost with 14x20 Tin. 



Cost per sq. of Stand- 
Price of Tin intr Seam Roof Cost per 
per Box. with 14x20 Tin. sq. Foot. 

$4.25 $2.37 0237 

4.50 2.51 0251 

4.75 2.65 0265 

5.00 2.79 0279 

5.25 2.93 0293 

5.50 3.06 0306 

5.75 3.20 0320 



6 00. 
6.25. 
6.50. 
6.75. 
7.00. 



3.34 0334 

3.48 0348 

3.62 0362 

3.76 0376 

3.90 0390 



Cost per sq. of Stand- 
Price of Tin ing Seam Roof 
per Box. with 14x20 Tin. 

$7.25 $4.03 

7.50 

7.75 

8 00 

8.25.0...., 

8.50 

8.75 

9 00 5.01 

9.25 5.15 



Cost per 
sq. Foot. 

,. .0403 



4.17 0417 

4-.31 0431 

4.45 0445 

4.59 0459 

4.73 0473 

4.87 0487 

0501 

0515 

9.50 5.29 0529 

9.75 5.43 0543 

10.00 5.57 0557 



334 



ROOFING. 



Roofing: Paint. 

Take 7 pounds of Prince's Metallic Paint, dry, and 1 gallon of pure 
linseed oil (1/2 boiled and >^ ra w). Mix. The above amount will cover 500 
square feet of tin roofing. 

General Rule for Computation of Slate Roofing. 

From the length of the slate take three inches, or as many as the third 
covers the first; divide the remainder by 2, and multiply the quotient by 
the width of the slate, and the product will be the number of square inches 
in a single slate. Divide the number of square inches thus procured by 144, 
the number of square inches in square foot, and the quotient will be the 
number of feet and inches required. A square of slate is what will cover 
100 feet square when properly laid upon the roof. 

TABLE OF SIZES AND NUMBER OF SLATES IN ONE SQUARE. 



Size in 
Inches. 


No. of 

Slate in a 

Square. 


9x 14 


ill 

291 


Size in 
Inches. 

1 


No. of 

Slate in a 

Square. 


N t-H 


No. of 

Slate in a 

Square. 


6x12 


533 


10x18 


192 


11x22 


137 


7 X 12 


457 


10 X 14 


261 


11 X 18 


174 


12x22 


126 


8x12 


400 


12x 14 


218 


12x18 


160 


14 X 22 


108 


9x12 


355 


8 X 16 


277 


14xl8J 


L 137 


12X--24 


114 


10x12 


320 


9x 16 


246 


10x20 


169 


14x24 


98 


12x12 


266 


10x16 


221 


11 X 20 


154 


16x24 


86 


7x 14 


374 


12x16 


184 


12x20 


141 


14x26 


89 


8x14 


327 


9x18 


213 


14x20 


121 


16x26 


78 



The weight of a Square of Slate is estimated in a general way (varying 
according to the thickness of the different makes), at from 600 to 700 
pounds per square. 



In some engines the initial pressure upon the piston is as low as two- 
thirds of the boiler pressure, while in improved automatic cut-off engines it 
is within a pound or two of the boiler pressure. 



A hollow shaft is very much stronger for its weight than a solid one. 



RESERVOIRS. 



335 



CAPACITY OP RESERVOIRS IN GAl^I/ONS. 

Note.— The columns headed Length and Width denote the length and 
width in feet; the columns headed Gallons denote the capacity in U. S. 
gallons of one foot in depth. 



Length 




Length 




Length 




Length 




Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


Width 




Width. 




Width. 




Width. 




Ix 1 


7.481 


15 X 7 


785.455 


23x10 


1720.519 


13x13 


1264.208 


2x 1 


14.961 


16 X 7 


837.818 


24x10 


1795.325 


14x13 


1361.454 


3x 1 


22.442 


17 X 7 


890.182 


25x10 


1870.130 


15x13 


1458.701 


2x 2 


.29.922 


18 X 7 


942.545 


26x10 


1944.935 


16x13 


1555.948 


3x 2 


44.883 


19 X 7 


994.909 


27x10 


2019.740 


17x13 


1653.195 


4x 2 


59.844 


20x 7 


1047.273 


28x10 


2094.545 


18x13 


1750.442 


5x 2 


74.805 


21 X 7 


1099.636 


29x10 


2169.351 


19x13 


1847.688 


6x 2 


89.766 


8x 8 


^8.753 


30x10 


2244.156 


20x13 


1944.935 


3x 3 


67.325 


9x 8 


538.597 


11x11 


905.143 


21x13 


2042.182 


4x 3 


89.766 


10 X 8 


598.442 


12x11 


987.429 


22x13 


2139.429 


5x 3 


112.208 


11 X 8 


658.286 


13x11 


1069.714 


23x13 


2236.675 


6x 3 


134.649 


12 X 8 


718. 130 


14x11 


1152.000 


24x13 


2333.922 


7x 3 


157.091 


13 X 8 


777.974 


15X11 


1234.286 


25x13 


2431.169 


8x 3 


179.532 


14 X 8 


837.818 


16x11 


1316.571 


26x13 


2528.416 


9x 3 


201.974 


15 X 8 


897.662 


17x11 


1398.857 


27x13 


2625.662 


4x 4 


119.688 


16 X 8 


957.507 


18X11 


1481.143 


28x13 


2722.909 


5x 4 


149.610 


17 X 8 


1017.351 


19x11 


1563.429 


29x13 


2820.156 


6x 4 


179.532 


18x 8 


1077.195 


20x11 


1645.714 


30x13 


2917.403 


7x 4 


209.455 


19 X 8 


1137.039 


21X11 


1723.000 


31x13 


3014.649 


8x 4 


239.377 


20 X 8 


1196.883 


22X11 


1810.286 


32x13 


3111.896 


9x4 


269.299 


21 X 8 


1256.727 


23x11 


1892.571 


33x13 


3209.143 


10 X 4 


299.221 


22x 8 


1316.571 


24x11 


1974.857 


34x13 


3306.390 


11 X 4 


329.143 


23 X 8 


1376.416 


25x11 


2057, 143 


35x13 


3403.636 


12 X 4 


359.065 


24 X 8 


1436.260 


26x11 


2139.428 


36x13 


3500.883 


5x 5 


187.013 


9x 9 


605.922 


27x11 


2221.714 


37x13 


3598.130 


6x 5 


224.416 


, lOx 9 


673.247 


28x 11 


2304.000 


38x13 


3695.377 


.7x5 


261.818 


llx 9 


740.571 


29x11 


2386.286 


39x13 


3792.623 


8x 5 


299.221 


12 x 9 


807.896 


30x11 


2468.571 


14x14 


1466.182 


flx 5 


336.623 


13 X 9 


875.221 


31x11 


2550.857 


15x14 


1570.909 


10 X 5 


374.026 


14 X 9 


942.545 


32x11 


2633.143 


16x14 


1675.636 


llx 5 


411.429 


15 X 9 


1009.870 


33x11 


2715.429 


17x14 


1780.363 


12 X 5 


448.831 


16 X 9 


1077.195 


12x12 


1077.195 


18x14 


1885.091 


13 X 5 


486.234 
523.636 


17 X 9 


1144.519 


13x12 


1166.961 


19x14 


1989.818 


14 X 5 


18 X 9 


1211.844 


14x12 


1256.727 


20x14 


2094.545 


15 X 5 


561.039 


19 X 9 


1279.169 


15x12 


1346.493 


21x14 


2199.263 


6x 6 


269.299 


20x 9 


1346.493 


16x12 


1436.260 


22x14 


2304.000 


7x 6 


§14.182 


21 X 9 


1413.818 


17x12 


1526.026 


23x14 


2408.727 


8x 6 


359.065 


22x 9 


1481.143 


18x12 


1615.792 


24x14 


2513.454 


9x 6 


403.948 


23x 9 


1548.467 


19x12 


1705.558 


25x14 


2618.182 


10 X 6 


448.831 


24 X 9 


1615.792 


20x12 


1795.325 


26x14 


2722.909 


11 X 6 


493.714 


25x 9 


1683.117 


21 xl2 


1885.091 


27x14 


2827.636 


12 X 6 


538.597 


26 X 9 


1750.442 


22 X 12 


1974.857 


28x14 


2932.364 


13 X 6 


583.480 


27x 9 


1817.766 


23x12 


2064.623 


29x14 


3037.091 


14 X 6 


628.364 


10 X 10 


748.052 


24x13 


2154.390 


30x14 


3141.818 


15 X 6 


673.247 


11 xlO 


822.857 


25x12 


2244.156 


31x14 


3246.545 


16 X 6 


718.130 


12 X 10 


897.662 


26x12 


2333.922 


32x14 


3351.273 


17 X 6 


763.013 


13x10 


972.467 


27x12 


2423.688 


33x14 


3456.000 


18 X 6 


807.896 


14x10 


1047.273 


28 X 12 


2513.455 


34x14 


3560.727 


7x 7 


366.545 


15x10 


1122.078 


29x12 


2603.221 


35x14 


3665.454 


8x 7 


418.909 


16x10 


1196.883 


30x12 


2692.987 


36x14 


3770.182 


9x 7 


471.273 


17x10 


1271.688 


31x12 


2782.753 


37x14 


3874.909 


10 X 7 


523.636 


18x10 


1346.493 


32x12 


2872.520 


38x14 


3979.636 


llx 7 


576.000 


19x10 


1421.299 


33x12 


2962.286 


39x14 


4084.364 


12 X 7 


628.364 


20x10 


1496.104 


34x12 


305?,, 052 


40x14 


4189.091 


13 X 7 


680.727 


21 X 10 


1570.909 


35x 12 


3141.818 


41 X 14 


4293.818 


14 X 7 


733.091 


22x10 


1645.714 


36x12 


3231.585 


42x14 


4398.545 



The diameter of a circular sheet multiplied by .7071 will give the side 
of the largest square that can be cut trom it. 



336 



RESERVOIRS. 



Capacity of Reservoirs in Gallons,— Continued. 



Length 




Length 




Length 




Length 




and 


Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


and 


Gallons. 


Width 




Width. 




Width. 




Width. 




15 X 15 


1683 117 


28x17 


3560.727 


33x20 


4937.143 


52x28 


10891.636 


16 X 15 


1795.325 


29x17 


3687.896 


34x20 


5086.753 


54 X 28 


11310.545 


17 X 15 


1907.532 


30 X 17 


3815.065 


35x20 


5236.364 


56x28 


11729.454 


18 X 15 


2019.740 


31 X17 


3942.234 


36x20 


5385.974 


30x30 


6738,467 


19x15 


2131.948 


32x17 


4069.403 


37x20 


5535. 5&4 


32x30 


7181.299 


20 X 15 


2244.156 


33x17 


4196.,571 


38x20 


5685.195 


34x30 


7630.130 


21 X 15 


2356.364 


34x17 


4323.740 


39x20 


5834.805 


36x30 


8078.961 


22x15 


2468.571 


18x18 


2423.688 


40x20 


5984.416 


38x30 


8527.792 


23 X 15 


2580.779 


19x18 


2558 338 


22x22 


3620.571 


40x30 


8976.623 


24X15 


2692.987 


20x18 


2692.987 


24x22 


3949.714 


42x30 


9425.454 


25x15 


2805.195 


21 X18 


2827.636 


26x22 


4278.857 


44x30 


9874.286 


26x15 


2917.403 


22x18 


2962.286 


28x22 


4608.000 


46x30 


10323.117 


27 X 15 


3029.610 


23X18 


3096.935 


30x22 


4937.143 


48x30 


10771.948 


28X15 


3141.818 


24X18 


3231.584 


32x22 


5266 286 


50x30 


11220.779 


29 X 15 


3254.026 


25X18 


3366.234 


34x23 


5595.429 


52x30 


11669.610 


30 X 15 


3366.234 


26X18 


3500.883 


36x22 


5924.571 


54x30 


12118.442 


31X15 


3478.442 


27X18 


3635.532 


38x22 


6253.714 


56 X 30 


12567,273 


32X15 


3590.649 


28X18 


3770.182 


40x22 


6582.857 


58x30 


13016.104 


33X15 


3702.857 


29X18 


3904.831 


42x22 


6912.000 


60x30 


13464.935 


34X15 


3815.065 


30 X 18 


4039.480 


44x22 


7241.143 


32x32 


7660.052 


35X15 


3927.273 


31 xi8 


4174.130 


24x24 


4308.779 


34x38 


8138.805 


36X15 


4039.480 


32X18 


4308.779 


26x24 


4667.844 


36x32 


8617.558 


37 X 15 


4151.688 


33X18 


4443.429 


28x24 


5026.909 


38x32 


9096.312 


38X15 


4263.896 


34X18 


4,578.078 


30x24 


5385.974 


40x32 


9575.065 


39X15 


4376.104 


35X18 


4712.727 


32x24 


5745.039 


42 X 32 


10053.818 


40X15 


4488.312 


36X18 


4847.377 


34x24 


6104.104 


44x32 


10532.571 


41x15 


4600.519 


19x19 


2700.467 


36x24 


6463.169 


46x32 


11011.325 


42X15 


4712.727 


20X19 


2842.597 


38x24 


6822.234 


48x32 


11490.078 


43 X 15 


4824.935 


21x19 


2984.727 


40x24 


7181.299 


50x32 


11968.831 


44X15 


4937.143 


22X19 


3126.857 


42 X 24 


7540.364 


52 X 33 


12447.584 


45 X 15 


5049.351 


23X19 


3268.987 


44x24 


7899.429 


54x32 


12926.338 


16x16 


1915.013 


24X19 


3411.117 


46x24 


8258.493 


56x32 


13405.091 


• 17X16 


2034.701 


25x19 


3553.247 


48 X 24 


8617.558 


58x32 


13883.844 


18x16 


2154.390 


26X19 


3695.377 


26x26 


5056.831 


60x32 


14362.597 


19X16 


2274.078 


27X19 


3837.506 


28x26 


5445.818 


62 X 32 


14841.351 


20x16 


2393.766 


28X19 


3979.636 


30x26 


5834.805 


64x32 


15320.104 


21X16 


2513.454 


29X19 


4121.766 


32x26 


6223.792 


34x34 


8647.480 


22X16 


2633.143 


30X19 


4263.896 


34x26 


6612.779 


36x34 


9156.156 


23X16 


2752.831 


31X19 


4406.026 


36x26 


7001.766 


38x34 


9664.831 


24X16 


2872.519 


32x19 


4548.156 


38x26 


7390.753 


40x34 


10173.506 


25X16 


2992.208 


33X19 


4690.286 


40x26 


7779.740 


42x34 


10682.182 


26X16 


3111.896 


34X19 


4832.416 


42x26 


8168.727 


44x34 


11190.857 


27X16 


3231.584 


35X19 


4974.545 


44x26 


8557.714 


46x34 


11699.532 


28x16 


3351.273 


36X19 


5116.675 


46x26 


8946.701 


48x34 


12208.208 


29x16 


3470.961 


37x19 


5258.805 


48x26 


9835.688 


50x34 


12716.863 


30x16 


3590.649 


38x19 


5400.935 


50x26 


9724.675 


52x34 


13225.558 


31x16 


3710.338 


20x20 


2992.208 


52x26 


10113.662 


54x34 


13734.234 


32x16 


3830.026 


21x20 


3141.818 


28x28 


5864.727 


56x34 


14242.909 


17x17 


2161.870 


22X20 


3291.429 


30x28 


6283.636 


58x34 


14751.584 


18x17 


2289.089 


23 X 20 


3441.039 


32 X 28 


6702.545 


60x34 


15260.260 


19x17 


2416.208 


24x20 


3590.649 


34x28 


7121.454 


62x34 


15768.935 


20x17 


2543.377 


25x20 


3740.260 


36x28 


7540.364 


64x34 


16277.610 


21x17 


2670.545 


26x20 


3889.870 


38x28 


7959.273 


66x34 


16786.286 


22x17 


2797.714 


27x20 


4039.480 


40x28 


8378.182 


68x34 


17294.961 


23x17 


2924. 883 


28x20 


4189.091 


42x28 


8797.091 


36x36 


9694.753 


24x17 


3052.052 


29x20 


4338.701 


44x28 


9216.000 


38x36 


10233..351 


25x17 


3179.221 


30x20 


4488.312 


46x28 


9634.909 


40x36 


10771.948 


26 x 17 


3306.390 


31 x20 


4637.922 


48x28 


10053.818 


42x36 


11310.545 


27x17 


3433.558 


32x20 


4787.532 


50x28 


10472.727 


44x36 


11849.143 



The United States inspection laws.allow 20 per cent more pressure to 
be carried on boilers with double-riveted longitudinal seams, than on single- 
riveted boilers. 



ROADWAYS— ROPE . 



337 



ROADWAYS. 

Table of Acres Required per Mile, and per loo Feet, for 
Different Widths. 





u 


u ■ 




Ih 


u . 




u 


u . 




i- 


u . 


5.: 


&, 




^^ 


a. 


^s 




s., 


*| 


^ . 




tl 


•o H 


w.*;; 


a)%H 


"O V. 


w.-S 


a)<M 


"0 a 




c«« 


■^11 


(»:3 


M« 


■$& 


gs 




S^ 


ss 


So 


g£ 


ii 


^9. 

oO 




bS 


S§ 




< 


<;h 




< 


<r^ 




< 


^H 




< 


<3H 


1 


.121 


.002 


26 


3.15 


.060 


52 


6.30 


.119~ 


78 


9.45 


.179 


2 


.242 


.005 


27 


3.27 


.062 


53 


6.42 


.122 


79 


9.58 


.181 


3 


.364 


.007 


28 


3.39 


.064 


54 


6.55 


.124 


80 


9.70 


M84 


4, 


.485 


.009 


29 


3.52 


.067 


55 


6.67 


.126 


81 


9.82 


.186 


5 


.606 


.011 


30 


3.64 


.069 


56 


6.79 


.129 


82 


9.94 


.188 


6 


.727 


.014 


31 


3 76 


.071 


57 


6.91 


.131 


V2 


10.0 


.189 


7 


.848 


.016 


32 


3.88 


.073' 


% 


7.00 


.133 


83 


10.1 


.190 


8 


.970 


.018 


33 


4.00 


.076' 


58 


7.03 


.133 


84 


10.2 


.193 


v* 


1.00 


.019 


34 


4.12 


.078, 


59 


7.15 


.135 


85 


10.3 


.195 


9 


1.09 


.021 


35 


4.24 


.080 


60 


7.27 


.138 


86 


10.4 


.197 


lO 


1.21 


.023 


36 


4.36 


.083; 


61 


7.39 


.140 


87 


10.5 


.200 


11 


1.33 


.025 


37 


4.48 


.085. 


62 


7.52 


.142 


88 


10.7 


.202 


12 


1.46 


.028 


38 


461 


.087: 


63 


7.64 


.145 


89 


10.8 


.204 


13 


1.58 


.030 


39 


4.73 


.090 


64 


7.76 


.147 


90 


10.9 


.207 


14 


1.70 


.032 


40 


4.85 


.092 


65 


7.88 


.149 


% 


n.o 


.209 


15 11.82 


.034 


41 


4.97 


.094. 


66 


8.00 


.151 


91 


11.0 


.209 


16 il.94 


.037 


y4 


5.00 


.094 


67 


8.12 


.154 


92 


11.2 


.211 


1/2 2.00 


.038 


42 


5.09 


.096 


68 


8.24 


.156 


93 


11.3 


.213 


17 


2.06 


.039 


43 


5.21 


.099 


69 


8.36 


.158 


94 


11.4 


.216 


18 


2.18 


.041 


44 


5.33 


.101 


70 


8.48 


.161 


9,5 


11.5 


.218 


19 


2.30 


.044 


45 


5.45 


.103 


71 


8.61 


.163 


9'6 


11.6 


.220 


20 


2.42 


.046 


46 


5.58 


.106 


72 


8.73 


.165 


97 


11.8 


.223 


21 


2.55 


.048 


47 


5.70 


.108 


73 


8.85 


.168 


98 


11.9 


.225 


22 


2.67 


.051 


48 


5.82 


.110 


74 


8.97 


.170 


99 


12.0 


.227 


23 


2.79 


.053 


49 


5.94 


.112 


V4 


9.00 


.170 


100 


12.1 


.230 


24 


2.91 


.055 


V2 


6.00 


.114 


75 


9.09 


.172 








% 


3.00 


.057 


50 


6.06 


.115 


76 


9.21 


.174 








25'* 


3.03 


.057 


51 


6.18 


.117 


77 


9.33 


.177 









MANII,I,A R0P:E. 





Circ. 


Weight 


Breaking load. 




Circ. 


Weight 


Breaking load. 






per foot 










per foot 








lbs. 


Tons. 


lbs. 






lbs. 


Tons. 


lbs. 


.239 


% 


.019 


.25 


560 


1.91 


6 


1.19 


11.4 


25536 


.318 


1 


.033 


.35 


784 


2.07 


6y2 


1.39 


13.0 


29120 


.477 


11/2 


.074 


.70 


1568 


2.23 


7 


1.62 


14.6 


32704 


.636 


2 


.132 


1.21 


2733 


2.39 


7y2 


1.86 


16.2 


36288 


,795 


21/2 


.206 


1.91 


4278 


2.55 


8 


2.11 


17.8 


39872 


.955 


3 


.297 


2.73 


6115 


2.86 


9 


2.67 


21.0 


47040 


1.11 


3y2 


.404 


3.81 


8534 


3.18 


10 


3.30 


24.2 


54208 


1.27 


4 


.528 


5.16 


11558 


3.50 


11 


3.99 


27.4 


61376 


1.43 


4y2 


.668 


6.60 


14784 


3.82 


12 


4.75 


30.6 


68544 


1.59 


5 


.825 


8.20 


18368 


4.14 


13 


5.58 


33.8 


75712 


1.75 


5V2 


.998 


9.80 


21952 


4.45 


14 


6.47 


37.0 


82880 



The strength of Manilla ropes, like that of bar iron, is very variable; and so 
with hemp ones. The above table supposes an average quality. Ropes of good 
Italian hemp are considerably stronger than Manilla; but their cost excludes them 
from general use. The tarring of ropes is said to lessen their strength; and when 
exposed to the weather, their durjsbility also. We believe that the use of it in 
standing rigging is partly to diminish contraction and expansion by alternate wet 
and dry weather. 

The strength of pieces from the same coil may vary 25 per cent. 

A few months of exposed work weakens ropes 20 to 50 per cent, 
22 



338 



ROPE. 



Transmission and Standing: Rope. 

With Seven Wires to the Strand. 

IRON. 



i 




Weight per 
Foot in Lbs. 
of Rope with 
Hemp Cen. 


Breaking 
train in Tons 
)f 2,000 Lbs. 


roper Work- 
ing Load in 
Tonsof2,000 
Lbs. 


ircumfcrence 
of Hemp 

ope of Equal 
Strength. 


s 


o 


C/2 ^ 


Ph 


U P!i 


11/2 


4% 


3.37 


36. 


9 


103/4 


1% 


414 


2.77 


30. 


71/2 


10 


IVa 


33/4 


2.28 


25. 


6V4 


9V4 


IVs 


33/8 


1.82 


20. 


5 


8 


1 


3 


1.50 


16. 


4 


7 


Vs 


2% 


1.12 


12.3 


3 


■ 6V4 


% 


23/8 


0.88 


8.8 


2V4 


5V4 


n 


21/8 


0.70 


7.6 


2 


5 


% 


lys 


0.57 


5.8 


iy2 


43/4 


1% 


1% 


0.41 


4.1 


1 


4 


V2 


13/8 


0.31 


2.83 


% 


3V4 


/e ~ 


• 11/4 


0.23 


2.13 


V2 


2% 


% 


11/8 


0.19 


1.65 




2y2 


i^e 


1 


0.16 


1.38 





2^4 


5% 


% 


0.125 


1.03 




2 



CAST STEEL. 



11/2 


4% 


3.37 


62 


13 


15 


13/8 


41/4 


2.77 


52 


10 


13 


11/4 


334 


2.28 


44 


9 


12 


11/8 


33/8 


1.82 


36 


71/2 


103/4 


1 


3 


1.50 


30 


6 


10 


% 


2% 


1.12 


22 


41/2 


8V2 


3/4 


23/8 


0.88 


17 


31/2 


7V4 


Ih 


21/8 


0.70 


14 


3 


6V2 


% 


1% 


0.57 


11 


21/4 


5V2 


1% 


1% 


0.41 


8 


13/4 


5 


V2 


13/8 


0.31 


6 


11/4 


43/4 


% 


11/8 


0.19 


4 


1 


33/4 


1^6 




0.16 


3 


3/4 


3^4 



Ropes with 19 wires to the strand are generally used for hoisting and 
running rope. 

Ropes with 12 wires and seven wires to the strand are stiffer, and bet- 
ter adapted for standing rope, guys and rigging. 



The cube of the diameter of a cast iron ball multiplied by .1377 will 
give its weight very nearly. 



ROPE. 



339 



Standard Hoisting Rope. 

With 19 Wires to the Strand. 

IRON. 





4> 


r Foot 
nds of 
with 
en. 


•2§ 




ence of 
ope of 
rength. 


p. 


u 


11 




.5 c 
,5 . 








B 

s 




bc_^ <u 

••c .S 0^ W 






|«.s 


21/4 


6% 


8.00 


74 


i 15 


153^2 


8 


2 


6 


6.30 


65 


13 


14)i 


7 


1% 


5M> 


5.25 


54 


11 


13 


6K 


1% 


5 


4.10 


44 


9 


12 


5 


1^2 


43/4 


3.65 


39 


8 


' UK 


4% 


1% 


43/8 


3.00 


33 


6K 


lOJi 


4K 


11/4 


4 


2.50 


27 


5X 


9K 


4 


11/8 


31/2 


2.00 


20 


4 


8 


3K 


1 


31/8 


1.58 


16 


3 


7 


3 


% 


23/4 


1.20 


11.50 


23^ 


6 


2H 


% 


21/4 


0.88 


8 64 


m 


5 


2K 


% 


2 


0.60 


5.13 


1¥ 


4K 


2 


x"« 


1% 


0.44 


4.27 


H 


4 


1% 


¥2 


IV2 


0.35 


3.48 


'A 


3K 


IK 


% 


IV4 


0.26 


2.50 


K 


3 


1 


CAST STEEL. 


2V4 1 


63/4 


8.00 


155 


31 




9 


2 


6 


6.30 


125 


25 




8 


1% 


5V2 


5.25 


106 


21 


15% 


7K 


1% 


5 


4.10 


86 


17 


14 K 


6 


IV2 


43/4 


3.65 


77 


15 


13>^ 


5K 


1% 


43/8 


3.00 


63 


12 


12 Ji 


53€ 


IV4 


4 


2.50 


52 


10 


UK 


5 


IVs 


31/2 


2.00 


42 


8 


10 


4K 


1 


31/8 


1.58 


33 


6 


93^ 


4 


Vs 


23/4 


1.20 


25 


5 


8 


3% 


% 


21/4 


0.88 


18 


31/2 


6K 


3K 


% 


2 


0.60 


14 


21/2 


53i 


3 


1% 


1% 


0.44 


9 


IV2 


4% 


2% 


V2 


11/2 


0.35 


TVs 


1 


4K 


2 



Note: In no case should galvanized wire rope be used for running rope. 
The weight of wire center ropes is 10 per cent, more than that of ropes with 
hemp centers. 

For safe working load, allow one-fifth to one-seventh of the ultimate 
strength, according to speed. 

When substituting wire rope for hemp rope, allow for the former the 
same weight per foot which experience has approved for the latter. 

The greater the diameter of sheaves, pulleys or drums, the longer wire 
ropes will last. 

It is better to increase the load than the speed of wire ropes. 
Wire rope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. 



340 



ROPE. 



Galvanised Iron Wire Rope. 

For Ship's Rigging and Guys for Derricks, 
charcoal rope. 



Circumference 
in Inches. 


Weight per 


Circumference of 


Breaking Strain 


Fathom 


Hemp Rope of 


in Tons of 


in Pounds. 


Equal Strength. 


2,000 Pounds. 


5K 


26K 


11 


43 


5M 


24 K 


lOK 


40 


5 


22 


10 


35 


4% 


21 


9K 


33 


43^ 


19 


9 


30 


4^ 


16K 


8K 


26 


4 


14M 


8 


23 


3H 


12% 


7K 


20 


3K 


10% 


7 


16 


SH 


9K 


6K 


14 


3 


8 


6 


12 


2H 


6% 


5K 


10 


2% 


5K 


5 


9 


2K 


4K 


4K 


8 


2 


3K 


4 


7 


1% 


2K 


3K 


5 


IK 


2 


3 


3K 


IM 


1% 


2K 


2K 


1 


% 


2 


2 


% 


}i 


IK 


1 



Galvanised Steel Cables for Suspension Bridges. 



Diameter in Inches. 


Ultimate Strength in 
Tons of 2,000 Pounds. 


Weight per Foot, 
Pounds. 


2% 


220 


13 


2% 


200 


11.3 


2% 


180 


10 


2}^ 


155 


8.64 


2 


110 


6.5 


1% 


100 


5.8 


1% 


95 


5.6 


1% 


75 


4.35 


IK 


65 


3,7 



Air expands ^^^ part of its bulk for every degree of heat added. The 
temperature of air compressed from dry atmospheric condition to 130 lbs. 
per square inch would be about 700 degrees. 



The most common taper for a lathe center is 60 degrees. 



341 



TABI/B OF TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE 

ROPES. 



4/ 43 



3 


?i 






o 


o 


Rev 


o 


<4-i 




o 


o 


fc « 


2 


^ c 


t» 


l-B 


TJ 1 


^ 


H 



so 

100 
120 
140 

80 
100 
120 
140 

80 
100 
120 
140 

80 
100 
120 
140 

80 
100 
120 
140 

80 
100 
120 
140 

80 



23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
22 
22 
22 
22 
21 
21 
21 
21 
20 
20 
20 
20 
19 
19 
19 
19 
\ 20 
^9 



% 



fl6 



3 

3>i 

4 

4'^ 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 
11 
13 
15 
14 
17 
20 
23 
20 
25 
30 
35 
26 
32 
39 
45 
\ 47 
) 48 






fRevoUi- 


of Rope. 


of Rope. 


Diameter 
in Feet. 


II 


o 

a 

u 


-M 

1 

Q 


9 


100 


j 20 
1 19 


[^ rs 


9 


120 


\ 20 
119 


\^ % 


9 


140 


i 20 
119 


[t%- ?^ 


; 10 


80 


M9 

ii8 


\% H 


10 


100 


j 19 
i 18 


(% H 


10 


120 


\ 19 
1 18 


[% \h 


10 


140 


j 19 
■ 18 


\% H 


12 


80 


M8 
1l7 


[h ^ 


12 


100 


U8 
U7 


[h % 


12 
12 


120 
140 


U8 




14 


80 


1 ?• 


[i 1^^ 


14 


100 


1 ? 


[i 1^ 



o 
a 

en 

u 
O 



j 58 

{ 60 

69 

73 

82 

84 

64 

68 

80 

85 

96 

102 

112 

119 

f 93 

I 99 

S 116 

\ 124 

140 

149 

173 

141 

148 

176 

185 



The above table gives the power produced b\' Patent Rubber-Hned 
Wheels and Wire Belt Ropes, at various speeds. 

Horse powers given in this table are calculated with a liberal margin 
for any temporary increase of work. 



Equivalent Belt. 

It is often required to convey- the entire power of a certain shaft which 
is driven b\' a belt of a given size. In such a case a simple rule agreeing 
with the average result of practice is, that 70 square feet of belt surface are 
equal to one horse power. 

Take, for example, a belt one foot wide, running at the rate of 1,400 

feet per minute; then the 

1400^+1' 
Horse power = n.-^, ^ 20 ; 

and by referring to the table we find the diameter of the wheel correspond 
ing to' this horse power, and making the same number of revolutions that 
the belt pulley does. 



342 



IRON riv:ets. 

Weight per loo. 



Length 






DIAMETERS. 






undei- Head. 


% 


% 


K 


% 


% 


% 


1 


1 


1.895 


4.848 


9.66 


16.79 


26.49 


39.3 


55.2 


% 


2.067 


5.235 


10.34 


17.86 


27.99 


41.4 


57.9 


% 


2.238 


5.616 


11.04 


18.96 


29.61 


43.5 


60.7 


% 


2.410 


6.003 


11.73 


20.03 


31.13 


45.6 


63.4 


■L/ 


2.582 


6.402 


12.43 


21.04 


32.74 


47.8 


66.2 


% 


2.754 


6.789 


13.12 


22.11 


34.25 


49.9 


68.9 


% 


2 926 


7.179 


13.81 


23.31 


35.86 


52.0 


71.7 


% 


3.098 


7.566 


14.50 


. 24.28 


37.37 


54.1 


74.4 


2 


3.269 


7.956 


15.19 


25.48 


38.99 


56.3 


77.2 


% 


3.441 


8.343 


15.88 


26.56 


40.40 


58.4 


79.9 


}4 


3.613 


8.733 


16.57 


27.65 


42.11 


60.5 


82.7 


% 


3.785 


9.120 


17.26 


28.73 


43.67 


62.6 


85.4 


y^ 


3.957 


9.511 


17.95 


29.82 


45.24 


84.8 


88.2 


% 


4.129 


9.898 


18.64 


30.90 


46.80 


66.9 


90.9 


% 


4.301 


10.29 


19.33 


31.99 


48.36 


69.0 


93.7 


% 


4.473 


10.67 


20.02 


33.08 


49.92 


71.1 


96.4 


3 


4.644 


11.06 


20.71 


34.18 


51.49 


73.3 


99 2 


% 


4.816 


11.44 


21.40 


35.27 


53.05 


75.4 


101.9 


% 


4.988 


11.84 


22.09 


36.35 


54.61 


77.5 


104.7 


% 


5.160 


12.23 


22.78 


37.44 


56.17 


79.6 


107.4 


K 


5.332 


12.62 


23.48 


38 52 


57.74 


81.8 


110.2 


% 


5.504 


13.01 


24.17 


39.60 


59.30 


83.9 


112.9 


% 


5.676 


13.39 


24.86 


40.69 


60.86 


86.0 


116.7 


% 


5.848 


13.78 


25.55 


41.78 


62.42 


88.1 


119.4 


4 


6.019 


14.17 


26.24 


42.87 


63.99 


90.3 


121.2 


Vs 


6.191 


14.56 


26.93 


43.94 


65.55 


92.4 


123.9 


H 


6.363 


14.95 


27.62 


45.01 


67.11 


94.5 


126.6 


100 Heads. 


.519 


1.74 


4.14 


8.10 


13.99 1 22.27 1 


33.15 



Length of Rivets required to make one Head = 13^ diameters of Round 



Bar. 



I^loyd's Rule for Shipbuilding. 



Dia. of 
Rivets. 

Thick- 
ness of 
Plates. 





%'' 






%'' 






%'' 






v 




// 


// 


// 


// 


/,' 


// 


// 


// 


// 


// 


// 


// 


h 


1% 


-h 


h 


h 


\% 


\\ 


M 


il 


i-l 


il 


11 



Rivets to be ^A in. 
larger in diame- 
ter in the stem, 
stern post, and 
keel. 



Boilermaker's Rule. 

Diameter of Rivets equals twice the thickness of the Plate, the Pitch 
equals 2V2 to 3 diameters of the Rivet. Lap for single joints equals 3 
diameters. Lap for double joints equals 5 diameters. 



RIVETS. 



343 



Weights of Rivets and Round-Headed Bolts Without Nuts 

Per 100. 



LENGTH FROM UNDER HEAD. 



ONE CUBIC FOOT WEIGHING 480 LBS. 



Length. 
























DIAMETER- 


-INCHES. 








Inches. 


% 


K 


% 


% 


% 


1 


IVs 


114 


IV4 


5.4 


12.6 


21.5 


28.7 


43.1 


65.3 


91.5 


123. 


iy2 


6.2 


13.9 


23.7 


31.8 


47.3 


70.7 


1 98.4 


133. 


1% 


6.9 


15.3 


25.8 


34.9 


51.4 


76.2 


105. 


142. 


2 


7.7 


16.6 


27.9 


37.9 


55.6 


81.6 


112. 


150. 


214 


8.5 


18.0 


30.0 


41. 


59.8 


87.1 


119. 


159. 


2Vo 


9.2 


19.4 


32.2 


44.1 


63.0 


92.5 


126. 


167. 


2% 


10.0 


20.7 


34.3 


47.1 


68.1 


98.0 


133. 


176. 


3 


10.8 


22.1 


36.4 


50.2 


72.3 


103. 


140. 


184. 


314 


11.5 


23.5 


38.6 


53.3 


76.5 


109. 


147. 


193. 


31/2 


12.3 


24.8 


40.7 


56.4 


80.7 


114. 


154. 


201. 


33/4 


13.1 


26.2 


42.8 


59.4 


84.8 


120. 


161. 


210. 


4 


13.8 


27.5 


45.0 


62.5 


89.0 


125. 


167. 


218. 


41/4 


14.6 


28.9 


47.1 


65.6 


93.2 


131. 


174. 


227. 


41/2 


15.4 


30.3 


49.2 


68.6 


97.4 


136. 


181. 


236. 


434 


16.2 


31.6 


51.4 


71.7 


102. 


142. 


188. 


244. 


5 


16.9 


33.0 


53.5 


74 8 


106. 


147. 


195. 


253. 


514 


17.7 


34.4 


55.6 


77.8 


110. 


153. 


202. 


261. 


51/2 


18.4 


35.7 


57.7 


80.9 


114. 


158. 


209. 


270. 


53/4 


19.2 


37.1 


59.9 


84.0 


118. 


163. 


216. 


278. 


6 


20.0 


38.5 


62.0 


87.0 


122. 


169. 


223. 


287. 


6V2 


21.5 


41.2 


66.3 


93.2 


131. 


180. 


236. 


304. 


7 


23.0 


43.9 


70.5 


99.3 


139. 


191. 


250. 


321. 


71/2 


24.6 


46.6 


74.8 


106 


147. 


202. 


264. 


338. 


8 


26.1 


49.4 


79.0 


112. 


156. 


213. 


278. 


355. 


81/2 


27.6 


52.1 


83.3 


118. 


164. 


223. 


292. 


372. 


9 


29.2 


54.8 


87.6 


124. 


173. 


234. 


306. 


389. 


91/2 


30.7 


57.6 


91.8 


130. 


181. 


245. 


319. 


406. 


10 


32.2 


60.3 


96.1 


136. 


189. 


256. 


333. 


423. 


101/2 


33.8 


63.0 


101. 


142. 


198. 


267. 


347. 


440. 


11 


35.3 


65.7 


105. 


148. 


206. 


278. 


361. 


457. 


111/2 


36.8 


68.5 


109. 


155. 


214. 


289. 


375. 


474. 


12 


38.4 


71.2 


113. 


161. 


223. 


300. 


388. 


491. 


Heads. 


1.8 


5.7 


10.9 


13 4 


22.2 


38.0 


57.0 


82.0 



344 



RIVETS. 



Number of Rivets to One Hundred Pounds. 



LENGTHS. 


% 


h 


K 


% 


H 


% 


% 


% 


1965 


1419 


1092 










% 


1948 


1335 


1027 


597 








1 


1692 


1222 


940 


538 


450 






IV4 


1437 


1036 


797 


487 


389 


356 


228 


IV2 


1300 


949 


730 


440 


357 


280 


180 


1% 


1200 


900 


693 


390 


325 


262 


169 


2 


1100 


789 


608 


360 


297 


243 


156 


21/4 


999 


721 


555 


347 


280 


232 


149 


2V2 


945 


682 


525 


335 


260 


220 


141 


2% 


900 


650 


500 


312 


242 


208 


133 


3 


828 


598 


460 


290 


224 


197 


127 


3V4 


779 


562 


433 


267 


212 


180 


115 


3y2 


743 


536 


413 


248 


201 


169 


108 


33/4 


715 


513 


395 


241 


192 


160 


102 


4 








236 


184 


158 


99 


41/2 








210 


171 


146 


94 


5 








190 


161 


135 


87 


5V2 








172 


151 


124 


80 


6 








157 


140 


115 


74 



Number of Belt Rivets and Burs in One Pound. 



Inch. 


K 


i^ 


% 


i^6 


y^ 


1^6 


% 


% 


% 


1 


^M 


IK 


I'A 


Burs. 


No 7 


272 


250 


228 


180 


164 


160 


148 


112 


112 


100 


84 


80 


69 


345 


" 8 


276 


268 


248 


200 


178 


172 


152 


136 


110 


104 


96 






390 


" 9 


340 


280 


272 


248 


228 


220 


184 


176 


156 


136 


.... 




.... 


610 


" 10 


544 


448 


384 


340 


304 


300 


272 


238 


204 






.... 




716 


" 12 


588 


512 


452 


404 


364 


334 


304 


272 












985 


" 13 


996 


852 


532 

















.... 




.... 


1640 



Number of Copper Braziers' Bivets 


in One Pound. 




Nos. 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




148 


100 


70 


44 


34 


24 


18 


12 


9 


6 


4 



The proper angle for a friction clutch is about 55 degrees. 



In friction wheels the driver should be of the softer material. 



RIVETS— SPIKES. 



345 







Shearing^ and Bearing Value of Rivets 


• 






Diam. of Rivet 
iu Inches. 


Area 

of 
Rivet 


Single 
Shear at 
7,500 lbs 

per 
Sq.Inch 


Bearing Valne for Different Thicknesses of Plate at 15,000 

lbs. per Sq. Inch. (= Dia. of Rivet x Thickness of Plate 

X 15,000 lbs.) 


Fracti'n 


Decimal 


^4" 


^" 


%'• 


x\" 


V2" 


"b 


%" 


ir 


%•• 


\r 


Js" 


K \ ?17!^ 


.1104 
.1503 

.1963 

.2485 

.3068 
.3712 

.4418 
.5185 

.6013 
.6903 

.7854 
.8866 

.9940 
1.1075 


828 
1130 

1470 
1860 

2300 

2780 

3310 
3890 

4510 

5180 

5890 
6650 

7460 
8310 


Il410 
1640 

1880 
2110 

2340 

2580 

2810 
3050 

3280 
3520 

3750 
3980 

4220 
4450 
























4375 


2050 

2340 
2&40 

2930 
3220 

3520 
3810 

4100 
4390 

4690 
4980 

5270 
5570 




















9 


.5 
5625 


2810 
3160 

3520 
3870 

4220 
4570 

4920 
5270 

5620 

5980 

6330 
6680 



















3690 
4100 
















5^ 


RO?; 
















\l ' .6875 


4510 


5160 














% .75 
11 1 8125 


4920 5630 
5330 6090 

,5740 6560 


6330 

6860 

7380 
7910 

8440 
8960 

9490 
10020 












7620 

8200 
8790 

9380 
9960 

10550 
11130 










% ! 875 










\% 


.9375 

1.0 
1.0625 

1.125 
1,1875 


6150 

6560 
6970 

7380 
7790 


7030 

7500 
7970 

8440 
8910 


9670 

10310 
10960 

11600 
12250 


11250 
11950 

12660 
13360 








12950 

13710 
14470 


14770 
15590 



WROUGHT SPIKES. 
Hook Head Railroad Spikes— No. to Keg of 150 Pounds. 



Size. 


Average No. 


Ties 2 ft. between centers, 


Rails used. 


per Keg. 


4 spikes f tie make ^ M. 


Weight ^ yd. 


6 x,% 

5K X j«e 


264 
289 


5998 lb 
5522 ' 


s. = 40 kegs. 
' =37 " 


[ 45 to 70 


5 X ,«g 


312 


5058 * 


' =35 " 


40 " 56 


5 X K 


412 


3843 ' 


' =25 " 


35 " 40 


4Kx M 


456 


3474 ' 


' =23 " 


30 " 35 


4 X % 


510 


3104 ' 


' =21 " 


28 " 35 


4K X 7e 


550 


2882 ' 


' = 19 " 


25 " 30 


4 x/« 


613 


2587 ' 


' =17 " 


3M X h 


675 


2344 ' 


' =16 " 


■ 20 " 25 


4 X % 


819 


1932 ' 


' =13 " 


3>^ X % 


965 


1647 ' 


* =11 " 


[ 16 " 20 


3 X ^^ 


1114 


1425 • 


' = 91/2 " 


3V2 X ,% 


1360 


1162 ' 


' = 7y^ " 


12 " 16 


3 x,«« 
2V2 X i^e 


1550 
1802 


1023 ' 

876 ' 


' = 6 


1 8 " 12 



Street and Tram I 


tail Spike- 


-Countersunk Heads. 


Size. 


No. to Keg 
150 lbs. 


of 


No. 


to lay 1 mile 2 ft. Apart. 


21/2 X K 


2300 






345 = 2% kegs. 


21/2 X i\ 


1720 






565= 3% " 


3 x,«« 


1250 






640= 4>i " 


3V2 X i^e 


1150 






690= 4% " 


5 X 1% 


900 






880 = 5% " 


6 X ^6 


840 






940= 6>^ " 


4 x>^ 


530 






1500 =10 " 


■ 4V2 X K 


480 






1650 = 11 " 


6 X K 


360 






2190 = 14% " 


6 x^ 


270 






2930 = 19K " 



346 



SPIKES— SHINGLES. 



Boat or Ship Spike— No. to Keg of 150 Pounds. 



Length. 


'4 


1% 


% 


t\ 


y^ 


3 


2250 
1890 
1650 
1464 
1380 
1292 
1161 










SV2 


1208 
1135 
1064 
930 
868 
662 
635 
573 








4 








4y2 








5 


742 
570 
482 
455 
424 
391 






6 






7 
8 


445 
384 
300 
270 
249 
236 


306 
256 


9 




240 


10 




222 


11 






203 


12 








180 













Weight of iElliptic Springs. 



TEMPERED, PER PAIR. 



1)^ X 3, 34 inches long 26 lbs. 



IH 


x3, 


36 


IH 


x4, 


34 


1% 


x4, 


36 


IK 


x3, 


34 


IK 


x3, 


36 


IK 


x4, 


34 


IK 


x4, 


36 


IK 


x5, 


34 



IK x5, 36 inches long 50 lbs 



28 " 


lKx6, 36 


34 " 


1^x4,36 


36 " 


l%x5, 36 


32 " 


1^x6,36 


34 " 


2 X 4, 36 


41 " 


2 X 5, 36 


44 " 


2 x6, 36 


47 " 


2 X 7, 36 





"S iJ^ 

' 60 




' 51 




' 58 




' 69 




' 64 




' 68 




' 83 




' 92 



The elastic limit of tempered spring steel, and of hard drawn steel 
spring wire, will range from 120,000 to 140,000 pounds per square inch, 
one-half of which, or 60,000 pounds, may be safely taken as the maximum 
working stress. 

The diameter of the spring should not be less than four or five times 
the diameter of the wire, in order that it may not be injured in coiling, and 
a larger diameter is desirable when it can be had. 



Shingles. 

Weights of shingles differ according to the character and specific gravity 
of the timber from which they are cut. In ordinary white pine a car load 
of 22,000 pounds of green shingles will be as follows: 

16 inch, Green 60,000 to 65,000 

16 " Dry 70,000 to 75,000 



18 inch 
18 " 



Green 52,000 to 55,000 

Drv 60,000 to 65,000 



The above for an average. There have been loaded 90,000 eighteen- 
inch shaved shingles, five butts to two and one-fourth inches, shingles one 
year old, seasoned under cover, on a ten-ton rate. One thousand shingles 
should lay one square, or a space of 10 feet by 10 feet. 

To calculate the number of shingles for a roof, ascertain the number of 



SAWS— SHOES. 



347 



square feet and multiply by 4, if 2 inches are laid to the weather; and by 8, 
if 41/2 inches; and by 7i, if 5 inches are exposed. 

The length of rafter of 1/3 pitch is equal to | of width of building adding 
projection. 

Table of Speed for Circular Saws. 



Size of Saw. 


Revolutions 


Size of Saw. 


Revolutions 


Inches. 


per Min. 


Inches. 


per Min. 


8 


4,500 


42 


870 


10 


3,600 


44 


840 


12 


3,000 


46 


800 


14 


2,585 


48 


750 


16 


2,222 


50 


725 


18 


2,000 


52 


700 


20 


1,800 


54 


675 


22 


1,636 


56 


650 


24 


1,500 


58 


625 


26 


1,384 


60 


600 


28 


1,285 


62 


575 


30 


1,200 


64 


550 


32 


1,125 


66 


545 


34 


1,058 


68 


529 


36 


1,000 


70 


514 


38 


950 


72 


500 


40 


900 







Weights of Horse and Mule Shoes. 



Horse Shoes. 



No. 



0, Fore.. 

1, " .. 

2, " .. 

3, " .. 

4, " .. 

5, " .. 

6, " .. 

7, •' .. 

0, Hind. 

1, " .. 

2, " .. 

3, " .. 

4, " .. 

5, " .. 

6, " .. 

7, " .. 



Light Pattern. 



Medium Pattern. 



12 ounces. 

14 

17 

20 

24 

29 

36 

i'o ''"" 

11 
14 
18 
22 
27 
32 



17 ounces. 

20 

24 

28 

34 

41 

48 

14 '"'*' 

16 
20 
24 
29 
35 
38 



Heavy Pattern. 



19 ounces. 
23 



26 
32 
39 
46 



15 
18 
23 
27 
32 
38 



No. 1, Mule 10 ounces. 

"■ 2, " 12 

" 3, " 15 

'• 4, " 19 

" 5, " 24 



348 



SHAFTING. 



TRANSMITTING :^FFICI]5NCY OF TURNED IRON 
SHAFTING, AT DIFF]eR:eNT SPEEDS. 

As Prime Mover or Head Shaft, Carrying Main Driving Pulley 
or Gear, Well Supported by Bearings. 



Diameter of 






NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 






Shaft. 














































60 


80 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


225 


250 


275 


300 


Inches. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


1% 


2.6 


3.4 


4.3 


5.4 


6.4 


7.5 


8.6 


9.7 


10.7 


11.8 


12.9 


2 


3.8 


5.1 


6.4 


8 


9.6 


11.2 


12.8 14.4 


16 


17.6 


19.2 


214 


5.4 


7.3 


8.1 


10 


12 


14 


16 18 


20 


22 


24 


2V2 


7.5 


10 


12.5 


15 


18 


22 


25 28 


31 


34 


37 


2% 


10 


13 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 36 


40 


44 


48 


3 


13 


17 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 45 


50 


55 


60 


3V4 


16 


22 


27 


34 


40 


47 


54 61 


67 


74 


81 


3y2 


20 


27 


34 


42 


51 


59 


68 76 


85 


93 


102 


33/4 


25 


33 


42 


52 


63 


73 


84 94 


105 


115 


126 


4 


30 


41 


51 


64 


76 


89 


102 115 


127 


140 


153 


4^V2 


43 


58 


72 


90 


108 


126 


144 162 


180 


198 


216 


5 


60 


80 


100 


125 


150 


175 


200 225 


250 


275 


300 


5V2 


80 


106 


133 


166 


199 


233 


266 299 


333 


366 


400 



As Second Movers or I/ine Shafting, Bearings 8 Feet Apart. 



Diameter of 

Shaft. 


NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE. 


























100 


125 


150 


175 


200 


225 


250 


275 


300 


325 


350 


Inches. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


1% 


6 


7.4 


8.9 


10.4 


11.9 


13.4 


14.9 


16.4 


17.9 


19.4 


20.9 


1% 


7.3 


9.1 


10.9 


12.7 


14.5 


16.3 


18.2 


20 


21.8 


23.6 


25.4 


2 


8.9 


11.1 


13.3 


15.5 


17.7 


20 


22.2 


24.4 


26.6 


28.8 


31 


2% 


10.6 


13.2 


15.9 


18.5 


21.2 


23.8 


26.5 


29.1 


31.8 


34.4 


37 


2V4 


12.6 


15.8 


19 


22 


25 


28 


31 


35 


38 


41 


44 


2% 


15 


18 


22 


26 


29 


33 


37 


41 


44 


48 


52 


2y2 


17 


21 


26 


30 


34 


39 


43 


47 


52 


56 


60 


23/4 


23 


29 


34 


40 


46 


52 


58 


64 


69 


75 


81 


3 


30 


37 


45 


52 


60 


67 


75 


82 


90 


97 


105 


3V4 


38 


47 


57 


66 


76 


85 


95 


104 


114 


123 


133 


3% 


47 


59 


71 


83 


95 


107 


119 


131 


143 


155 


167 


33^ 


58 


73 


88 


102 


117 


132 


146 


162 


176 


190 


205 


4 


71 


89 


107 


125 


142 


160 


178 


196 


213 


231 


249 



For Simply Transmitting Power. 



Diameter of 
Shaft. 


NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE, 
























100 


126 


150 


175 


200 


233 


267 


300 


333 


367 


400 


Inches. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


FT. P.!H. P. 


H P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


IV2 


6.7 


8.4 


10.1 


11.8 


13.5 


15.7 


17.9 


20.3 


22.5 


24.8 


27 


1% 


8.6 


10.7 


12.8 


15 


17.1 


20 


22.8 


25.8 


28.6 


31.5 


34.3 


13^ 


10.7 


13.4 


16 


18.7 


21.5 


25 


28 


32 


36 


39 


43 


1% 


13.2 


16.5 


19.7 


23 


26.4 


31 


35 


39 


44 


48 


52 


2 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


37 


42 


48 


53 


58 


64 


2V8 


19 


24 


29 


33 


38 


44 


51 


57 


63 


70 


76 


2% 


22 


28 


34 


39 


45 


52 


60 


68 


75 


83 


90 


23/8 


27 


33 


40 


47 


53 


62 


70 


79 


88 


96 


105 


2V2 


31 


39 


47 


54 


62 


73 


83 


93 


104 


114 


125 


2% 


41 


52 


62 


73 


83 


97 


111 


125 


139 


153 


167 


3 


54 


67 


81 


94 


108 


126 


144 


162 


180 


198 


216 


3y4 
3% 


68 


86 


103 


120 


137 


160 


182 


205 


228 


250 


273 


85 


107 


128 


150 


171 


200 


228 


257 


285 


313 


342 



SHAFTING. 



349 



Shafting. 

To find the power of a shaft when its diameter and speed are given. 

Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter of shaft by 600, and that 
product bj' the number of revolutions per minute, and divide by 33,000. 
The quotient will be the horse power of shaft approximately. 

To find the speed of a shaft when its diameter and the power it is re- 
quired to transmit are given. 

Rule: Multiply the given power by 33,000 and divide the product by 
600, this quotient di^'ided by the cube of the diameter of the shaft will give 
the speed required. 

To find the requisite diameter of a wrought iron shaft, the horse power 
to be transmitted, and the revolutions of shaft per minute being given. 

Rule: Multiply the given horse power by 190, divide the p"oduct by 
the number of revolutions per minute, and the cube root of the quotient 
will be the required diameter of shaft in inches. 

Example: 10 H. P. X 190 = 1900. 
1900 = 38, 
50 revolutions per minute. 

The cube root of 38 = 3. 36 nearl v. 3. 36 inches. Ans. 



Horse Power I/ine Shafting Will Transmit with Safety, Bear- 
ings Say 8 to lo Feet Apart. 



Diam. of Shaft 


Horse Power in 


Diam. of Shaft in 


Horse Power in 


in Inches. 


One Revolution. 


Inches. 


One Revolution. 


1 5 
1 6 


.008 


311 


.512 


ll\ 


.016 


^h 


.728 


1/g 


.027 


411 


1.100 


IM 


.043 


5/. 


1.328 


1^1 


.064 


511 


1.728 


2f% 


.091 


6/6 


2.195 


2-h 


.125 


6il 


2.744 


2M 


.166 


7/w 


3.368 


2f| 


.216 


71i 


4.096 


3 1=^6 


.272 


8/. 


4.912 


3/, 


.343 


8il 


5.824 


311 


.424 


9/6 


6.848 



Speed in Turning Shafting. 

With special shafting lathe 14-inch swing, 50 feet between centers, 2 
tools and burnishing die. 

lli in. diam 18 feet per hour. 



1% 

2 

2V4 

2V2 

3 

31/2 

4 



.15 

.13^ 
.12 
.101/2 
. 9 
. 71/2 
61^ 



350 



Steam. 

Pure steam is composed of two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxy- 
gen; or, by weight, one of hydrogen and eight of oxygen. If two cubic feet 
of hydrogen and one of oxygen are united, they will form only two cubic 
feet of steam, or a volume equal to that of the hydrogen and equal in weight 
to both. 

Steam is three-eights lighter than common air. An atmosphere of pure 
steam would only weigh a little over nine pounds, yet water, of which it is 
composed, is 770 times heavier than air. Watt gives the latent heat of 
steam at one atmosphere as 988 degrees; at 10 atmospheres as 840 degrees. 
Southern gives the latent heat as constant at 950 degrees at all tempera- 
tures. Lavoisier at 1,000 degrees. Rumford at 1,009 degrees, and Reg- 
nault at 966 degrees. 

In measuring the quantity of heat contained in steam, the ordinary 
thermometer is useless. 

One cubic inch of water generated into steam contains sufficient heat 
to raise the temperature of 51/2 cubic inches from 32 degrees Fahr. to 212 
degrees, making in all, when condensed, 6^4 inches of water at 212 degrees; 
yet the steam only indicated 212 degrees. Hence, if we multiply 6 K by 
212 degrees, and deduct the 32 degrees contained in the 5K inches of water, 
we will have 1,202 as the amount of heat obtained from 1,700 cubic inches 
of steam, or the amount necessary to evaporate one cubic inch of waterinto 
steam, yet the steam will indicate, by the thermometer, as having only re- 
ceived 108 degrees, when, as shown by the above calculation, it has re- 
ceived 1,170 degrees, and yielded up to the 5K inches of water 990 degrees. 

Steam flowing into a vacuum at an expansive pressure of 15 pounds 
per square inch, travels at the rate of 1,550 feet per second; and flowing 
into the air, at the rate of 650 feet per second, for a pressure of 15 pounds 
per square inch. 

By this it will be seen that a small pipe will discharge a very large quan- 
tity of steam. 

A 2-inch pipe will discharge over 100-horse power of steam into a coil 
surrounded by water sufficient to produce a vacuum, and about the same, 
when the steam is discharged into water. 

In such cases there should be no more than one square inch of steam 
opening from the boiler for every 50-horse power of its capacity, and at that 
rate for all sizes of boiler. 

When steam is used for heating water in tanks by discharging it into 
the water, there should be about 5 pounds of water brought to a tempera- 
ture of 212 degrees for every pound of water evaporated in the boiler. 

When coils are used for heating water they should be located above the 
boiler, and the condensed water returned to the boiler, by its own gravity, 
or a pump may be used to return the water, thereby saving as much fuel as 
has been used to bring this water to the temperature at which it leaves the 
coils. 



STEAM, 



351 



Table of Properties of Saturated Steam. 





i 




Total Heat in 


Relative Vol- 
nme or Cubic 
Feet of Steam 


Pressure per 


Temperature 


Latent Heat 


Heat Units 


Square Inch 
b3^ Gauge. 


in Fahrenheit 
Degrees. 


in Heat 
Units. 


From Water 
at 32° F. 


From One Cu- 
bic Ft.of Water 


5 


227.917 


954.415 


1151.454 


1220.3 


10 


240.000 


945.825 


1155.139 


984.8 


15 


250.245 


938.925 


1158.263 1 


826.8 


20 


259.176 


932.152 


1160.987 


713.4 


25 


267.120 


926.472 


1163.410 


628.2 


30 


274.296 


921.334 


1165.600 


561.8 


35 


280.854 


916.631 


1167.600 


508.5 


40 


286.897 


912.290 


1169.442 


464.7 


45 


292.520 


908.247 


1171.158 


428.5 


50 


297.777 


904.462 


1172.762 


397.7 


55 


302.718 


900.899 


1174.269 


371.2 


60 


307.388 


897.526 


1175.692 


348.3 


65 


311.812 


894.330 


1177.042 


328.3 


70 


316.021 


891.286 


1178.326 


310.5 


75 


320.039 


888.375 


1179.551 


294.7 


80 


323.884 


885.588 


1180.724 


280.6 


85 


327.571 


883.914 


1181.849 


267.9 


90 


331.113 


880.342 


1182.929 


265.5 


95 


334.523 


877.865 


1183.970 


246.0 


100 


337.814 


875.472 


1184.974 


236.3 


105 


340.995 


873.155 


1185.944 


227.6 


110 


344.074 


870.911 


1186.883 


219.7 


115 


347.059 


868. 735 


1187.794 


212.3 


125 


352.757 


864.566 


1189.535 


199.0 


135 


358.161 


860.621 


1191.180 


187.5 


145 


363.277 


856.874 


1192.741 


177.3 


155 


368.158 


853.294 


1194.228 


168.4 


165 


372.822 


849.869 


1195.650 


160.4 


175 


377.291 


846.584 


1197.013 


153.4 


185 


381.573 


843.432 


1198.319 


147.1 


235 


401.072 


831.222 


1203.735 


114. 


285 


418.225 


819.610 


1208.737 


96. 


335 


431.956 


810.690 


1212.580 


83. 


385 


444.919 


800.198 


1217.094 


73. 



Note. — By the term Saturated Steam is meant not as some think wet 
steam, but simply c/rj steam, as it is formed in contact with water. 



A belt will run toward the ends of the shafts that are nearest tosrether. 



A good average consumption of coal per horse power, per hour, for a 
good compound engine is about 1.75 pounds of coal. 



352 



STEAM. 



Table of Steam Used Expansively. 



Inital Presure 



Average Pressure of Steam in lbs. per Square Inch, 
for the Whole Stroke. 



DS. i^er 1 


Portion of Stroke at which Steam is Cut Off. 


are Inch. 
















% 


% 


K 


% 


3€ 


% 


5 


4.8 


4.6 


4 2 


3.7 


2.9 


1.9 


10 


9.6 


9.1 


8.4 


7.4 


5.9 


3.8 


15 


14.4 


13.7 


12 7 . 


11.1 


8.9 


5.7 


20 


19.2 


18.3 


16.9 


14.8 


11.9 


7.6 


25 


24.1 


22.9 


21.1 


18.5 


14.9 


9.5 


30 


28.9 


27.5 


25.4 


22.2 


17.9 


11.5 


35 


33.8 


32.1 


29.6 


25.9 


20.8 


13.4 


40 


37.5 


36.7 


33.8 


29 6 


23.8 


15.4 


45 


43.4 


41.3 


38.1 


33.3 


26.8 


17.3 


50 


48.2 


45.9 


42.3 


37.0 


29.8 


19.2 


60 


57.8 


55.1 


50.7 


44.5 


35.7 


23.1 


70 


67.4 


64.3 


59.2 


52.4 


41.7 


26.9 


80 


77.1 


73.5 


67.7 


59.3 


47.7 


30.8 


90 


86.7 


82.6 


76.1 


66.7 


53.6 


34.6 


100 


96.3 


91.8 


84.6 


74.1 


59.6 


38.4 


110 


106.0 


101.0 


93.1 


81.5 


65.6 


42.5 


120 


115.2 


110.2 


101.5 


89.4 


71.5 


46.1 


130 


125.4 


119.1 


110.0 


95.3 


77.5 


50.0 


140 


134.9 


128.6 


118.5 


103.8 


83.3 


53.8 


150 


144.7 


137.8 


126.4 


111.2 


89.4 


57.7 


160 


153.6 


147.0 


135.4 


118.2 


95.4 


61.5 


180 


173.5 


1 164.6 


152.3 


132.9 


107.3 


69.2 


200 


192.7 


1 183.7 


1 169.3 


148.3 


119.3 


76.9 



Velocity of Steam Escaping Into the Atmosphere. 



Pressure Above 


Velocity 


Pressure Above 


Velocity 


Atmosphere. 


Per Second. 


Atmosphere. 


Per Second. 


Pounds. 


Feet. 


Pounds. 


Feet. 


1 


540 


50 


1736 


2 


698 


60 


1777 


3 


814 


70 


1810 


4 


905 


80 


1835 


5 


981 


90 


1857 


10 


1232 


100 


1875 


20 


1476 • 


110 


1889 


30 


1601 


120 


1900 


40 


1681 


130 


1909 



Ordinary %-inch rubber tubing will stand a pressure of from 10 to 15 
lbs. per square inch. 



SINLS. 



353 



NATURAIy SINES, TANGENTS AND SECANTS, 

ADVANCING BY 10 MIN. 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 

■ 





00 


.0000 


,0000 


1.0000 


7 


00 


.1219 


.1228 


1.0075 




10 


.0029 


.0029 


1 . 0000 




10 


.1248 


.1257 


1.0079 




20 


.0058 


.0058 


1.0000 




20 


.1276 


.1287 


1.0082 




30 


.0087 


.0087 


1.0000 




30 


.1305 


.1317 


1.0086 




40 


,0116 


.0116 


1.0001 




40 


.1334 


.1346 


1.0090 




50 


.0145 


.0145 


1.0001 




50 


.1363 


.1376 


1.0094 


1 


00 


.0175 


.0175 


1.0002 


8 


00 


.1392 


.1405 


1.0098 




10 


.0204 


.0204 


1.0002 




10 


.1421 


.1435 


1.0102 




20 


.0233 


.0233 


1.0003 




20 


.1449 


.1465 


1.0107 




30 


.0262 


.0262 


1 .0003 




30 


.1478 


.1495 


1.0111 




40 


.0291 


.0291 


1.0004 




40 


.1507 


.1524 


1.0116 




50 


.0320 


.0320 


1.0005 




50 


.1536 


.1554 


1.0120 


2 


00 


.0349 


.0349 


1.0006 


9 


00 


.1564 


.1584 


1.0125 




10 


.0378 


.0378 


1.0007 




10 


.1593 


.1614 


1.0129 




20 


.0407 


.0407 


1.0008 




20 


.1622 


.1644 


1.0134 




30 


.0436 


.0437 


1.0010 




30 


.1650 


.1673 


1.0139 




40 


.0465 


.0466 


1.0011 




40 


.1679 


.1703 


1.0144 




50 


.0494 


.0495 


1.0012 




50 


.1708 


.1733 


1.0149 


3 


00 


.0523 


.0524 


1.0014 


10 


00 


.1736 


.1763 


1.0154 




10 


.0552 


.0553 


1.0015 




10 


.1765 


.1793 


1.0160 




20 


.0581 


.0582 


1.0017 




20 


.1794 


.1823 


1.0165 




80 


.0610 


.0612 


1.0019 




30 


.1822 


.1853 


1.0170 




40 


.0640 


.0641 


1.0021 




40 


.1851 


.1883 


1.0176 




50 


.0669 


.0670 


1.0022 




50 


.1880 


.1914 


1.0181 


4 


00 


.0698 


.0699 


1.0024 


11 


00 


.1908 


.1944 


1.0187 




10 


.0727 


.0729 


1.0027 




10 


.1937 


.1974 


1.0193 




20 


.0756 


.0758 


1.0029 




20 


-1965 


.2004 


1.0199 




30 


.0785 


.0787 


1.0031 




30 


.1994 


.2035 


1.0205 




40 


.0814 


.0816 


1.0033 




40 


.2022 


.2065 


1.0211 




50 


.0843 


.0846 


1.0036 




50 


.2051 


.2095 


1.0217 


5 


00 


.0872 


.0875 


1.0038 


12 


00 


.2079 


.2126 


1.0223 




10 


.0901 


.0904 


1.0041 




10 


.2108 


.2156 


1.0230 




20 


.0929 


.0934 


1.0043 




20 


.2136 


.2186 


1.0236 




30 


.0958 


.0963 


1.0046 




30 


.2164 


.2217 


1.0243 




40 


.0987 


.0992 


1.0049 




40 


.2193 


.2247 


1.024-9 




50 


.1016 


.1022 


1.0052 




50 


.2221 


.2278 


1.0256 


6 


00 


.1045 


.1051 


1.0055 


13 


00 


.2250 


.2309 


1.0263 




10 


.1074 


.1080 


1.0058 




10 


.2278 


.2339 


1.0270 




20 


.1103 


.1110 


1.0061 




20 


.2306 


.2370 


1.0277 




30 


.1132 


.1139 


1.0065 




30 


.2334 


.2401 


1.0284 




40 


.1161 


.1169 


1.0068 




40 


.2363 


.2432 


1.0291 




50 


.1190 


.1198 


1.0072 




50 


.2391 


.2462 


1.0299 



a» 



354 



SINES. 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants. 

{Continued.) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. Deg 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


14 


00 


.2419 


.2493 


1.0306 


21 


00 


3584 


.3839 


1.0711 




10 


.2447 


.2524 


1.0314 




10 


.3611 


•3872 


1.0723 




20 


.2476 


.2555 


1.0321 




20 


.3638 


.3906 


1.0736 




30 


.2504 


.2586 


1.0329 




30 


.3665 


.3939 


1.0748 




40 


.2532 


.2617 


1.0337 




40 


.3692 


.3973 


1.0760 




50 


.2560 


.2648 


1.0345 




50 


.3719 


.4006 


1.0773 


15 


00 


.2588 


.2679 


1.0353 


22 


00 


.3746 


.4040 


1.0785 




10 


.2616 


.2711 


1-0361 




10 


.3773 


.4074 


1.0798 




20 


.2644 


.2742 


1.0369 




20 


.3800 


.4108 


1.0811 




30 


.2672 


.2773 


1.0377 




30 


.3827 


.4142 


1.0824 




40 


.2700 


.2805 


1.0386 




40 


.3854 


.4176 


1.0837 




50 


.2728 


.2836 


1.0394 




50 


.3881 


.4210 


1.0850 


16 


00 


.2756 


.2867 


1.0403 


23 


00 


.3907 


.4245 


1.0864 




10 


.2784 


.2899 


1.0412 




10 


.3934 


.4279 


1.0877 




20 


.2812 


.2931 


1.0421 




20 


.3961 


.4314 


1.0891 




30 


.2840 


.2962 


1.0429 




30 


.3987 


.4348 


1.0904 




40 


.2868 


.2994 


1.0439 




40 


.4014 


.4383 


1.0918 




50 


.2896 


.3026 


1.0448 




50 


.4041 


.4417 


1.0932 


17 


00 


.2924 


.3057 


1.0457 


24 


00 


.4067 


.4452 


1.0946 




10 


.2952 


.3089 


1.0466 




10 


.4094 


.4487 


1.0961 




20 


.2979 


.3121 


1.0476 




20 


.4120 


.4522 


1.0975 




30 


.3007 


.3153 


1.0485 




30 


.4147 


.4557 


1.0989 




40 


.3035 


.3185 


1 .0495 




40 


.4173 


.4592 


1.1004 




50 


.3062 


.3217 


1.0505 




50 


.4200 


.4628 


1.1019 


18 


00 


.3090 


.3249 


1.0515 


25 


00 


.4226 


.4663 


1.1034 




10 


.3118 


.3281 


1.0525 




10 


.4253 


.4699 


1.1049 




20 


.3145 


.3314 


1.0535 




20 


.4279 


.4734 


1.1064 




30 


.3173 


.3346 


1.0545 




30 


.4305 


.4770 


1.1079 




40 


.3201 


.3378 


1.0555 




40 


.4331 


.4806 


1.1095 




50 


.3228 


.3411 


1.0566 




50 


.4358 


.4841 


1.1110 


19 


00 


.3256 


.3443 


1.0576 


26 


00 


.4384 


.4877 


1.1126 




10 


.3283 


.3476 


1.0587 




10 


.4410 


.4913 


1.1142 




20 


.3311 


.3508 


1.0598 




20 


.4436 


.4950 


1.1158 




30 


.3338 


.3541 


1.0608 




30 


.4402 


.4986 


1.1174 




40 


.3365 


.3574 


1.0619 




40 


.4488 


.5022 


1.1190 




50 


.3393 


.3607 


1.0631 




50 


.4514 


.5059 


1.1207 


20 


00 


.3420 


.3640 


1.0642 


27 


00 


.4540 


.5095 


1.1223 




10 


.3448 


.3673 


1.0653 




10 


.4566 


.5132 


1.1240 




20 


.3475 


.3706 


1.0665 




20 


.4592 


.5169 


1.1257 




30 


.3502 


.3739 


1.0676 




30 


.4617 


.5206 


1.1274 




40 


.3529 


.3772 


1.0688 




40 


.4643 


.5243 


1.1291 




50 


.3557 


.3805 


1.0700 




50 


.4669 


.5280 


1.1308 



SINES. 



365 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants. 

{Continued.) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


28 


00 


.4695 


.5317 


1.1326 


35 


00 


.5736 


.7002 


1.2208 




10 


.4720 


.5354 


1.1343 




10 


.5760 


.7046 


1.2233 




20 


.4746 


.5392 


1.1361 




20 


.5783 


.7089 


1.2258 




30 


.4772 


.5430 


1.1379 




30 


.5807 


.7133 


1.2283 




40 


.4797 


.5467 


1.1397 




40 


.5831 


.7177 


1.2309 




50 


.4823 


.5505 


1.1415 




50 


.5854 


.7221 


1.2335 


29 


00 


.4848 


.5543 


1.1434 


36 


00 


.5878 


.7265 


1.2361 




10 


.4874 


.5581 


1.1452 




10 


.5901 


.7310 


1.2387 




20 


.4899 


.5619 


1.1471 




20 


.5925 


.7355 


1.2413 




30 


.4924 


.5658 


1.1490 




30 


.5948 


.7400 


1.2440 




40 


.4950 


.5696 


1.1509 




40 


.5972 


.7445 


1.2467 




50 


.4975 


.5735 


1.1528 




50 


.5995 


.7490 


1.2494 


30 


00 


.5000 


.5774 


1.1547 


37 


00 


.6018 


.7536 


1.2521 




10 


.5025 


.5812 


1.1566 




10 


.6041 


.7581 


1.2549 




20 


,5050 


.5851 


1.1586 




20 


.6065 


.7627 


1.2577 




30 


.5075 


.5890 


1.1606 




30 


.6088 


.7673 


1.2605 




40 


.5100 


.5930 


1.1626 




40 


.6111 


.7720 


1.2633 




50 


.5125 


.5969 


1.1646 




50 


.6134 


.7766 


1.2661 


31 


00 


.5150 


6009 


1.1666 


38 


00 


.6157 


.7813 


1.2690 




10 


.5175 


.6048 


1.1687 




10 


.6180 


.7860 


1.2719 




20 


.5200 


.6088 


1.1707 




20 


.6202 


.7907 


1.2748 




30 


.5225 


.6128 


1.1728 




30 


.6225 


.7954 


1.2778 




40 


.5250 


.6168 


1.1749 




40 


.6248 


.8002 


1.2808 




50 


.5275 


.6208 


1.1770 




50 


.6271 


.8050 


1.2837 


32 


00 


.5299 


.6249 


1.1792 


39 


00 


.6293 


.8098 


1.2868 




10 


.5324 


.6289 


1.1813 




10 


.6316 


.8146 


1.2898 




20 


.5348 


.6330 


1.1835 




20 


.6338 


.8195 


1.2929 




30 


.5373 


.6371 


1.1857 




30 


.6361 


.8243 


1.2960 




40 


.5398 


.6412 


1.1879 




40 


.6383 


.8292 


1.2991 




50 


.5422 


.6453 


1.1901 




50 


.6406 


.8342 


1.3022 


33 


00 


.5446 


.6494 


1.1924 


40 


00 


.6428 


.8391 


1.3054 




10 


.5471 


.6536 


1.1946 




10 


.6450 


.8441 


1.3086 




20 


.5495 


.6577 


1.1969 




20 


.6472 


.8491 


1.3118 




30 


.5519 


.6619 


1.1992 




30 


.6494 


.8541 


1,3151 




40 


.5544 


.6661 


1.2015 




40 


.6517 


.8591 


1.3184 




50 


.5568 


.6703 


1.2039 




50 


.6539 


.8642 


1.3217 


34 


00 


.5592 


.6745 


1.2062 


41 


00 


.6561 


.8693 


1.3250 




10 


.5616 


.6787 


1.2086 




10 


.6583 


.8744 


1.3284 




20 


.5640 


.6830 


1.2110 




20 


.6604 


.8796 


1.3318 




30 


.5664 


.6873 


1.2134 




30 


.6626 


.8847 


1.3352 




40 


.5688 


.6916 


1.2158 




40 


.6648 


.8899 


1.3386 


50 


.5712 


.6959 


1.2183 


1 50 


.6670 


.8952 


1.3421 



356 



SINES. 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants. 

{Continued. ) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


42 


00 


.6691 


.9004 


1.3456 


49 


00 


.7547 


1.1504 


1. 5243 




10 


.6713 


.9057 


1.3492 




10 


.7566 


1.1571 


1.5294 




20 


.6734 


.9110 


1.3527 




20 


.7585 


1.1640 


1.5345 




30 


.6756 


.9163 


1.3563 




30 


.7604 


1.1708 


1.5398 




40 


.6777 


.9217 


1.3600 




40 


.7623 


1.1778 


1.5450 




50 


.6799 


.9271 


1.3636 




50 


.7642 


1.1847 


1.5504 


43 


00 


.6820 


,9325 


1.3673 


50 


00 


.7660 


1.1918 


1.5557 




10 


6841 


.9380 


1.3711 




10 


.7679 


1.1988 


1.5611 




20 


6862 


.9435 


1.3748 




20 


.76.)8 


1. 2059 


1 5666 




30 


.6884 


.9490 


1.3786 




30 


.7716 


1.2131 


1.-^721 




40 


.6905 


.9545 


1.3824 




40 


.7735 


1.2203 


15777 




50 


.6926 


.9601 


1.3863 




50 


.7753 


1.2276 


1.5833 


44 


00 


.6947 


.9657 


1.3902 


51 


00 


.7771 


1.2349 


1.5890 




10 


.6967 


.9713 


1.3941 




10 


.7790 


1.2423 


1.5948 




20 


.6988 


.9770 


1.3980 




20 


.7808 


1.2497 


1.6005 




30 


.7009 


.9827 


1.4020 




30 


.7826 


1.2572 


1.6064 




40 


.7030 


.9884 


1.4061 




40 


.7844 


1.2647 


1.6123 




50 


.7050 


.9942 


1.4101 




50 


.7862 


1.2723 


1 6183 


45 


00 


.7071 


1.0000 


1.4142 


52 


00 


.7880 


1.2799 


1.6243 




10 


.7092 


1.0058 


1.4183 




10 


.7898 


1.2876 


1 6303 




20 


.7112 


1.0117 


1.4225 




20 


-7916 


1.2954 


1.6365 




30 


.7133 


1.0176 


1.4267 




30 


.7934 


1.3032 


1.6427 




40 


.7153 


1.0235 


1.4310 




40 


.7951 


1.3111 


1.6489 




50 


.7173 


1.0295 


1.4352 




50 


.7969 


1.3190 


1.6553 


46 


00 


.7193 


1.0355 


1.4396 


53 


00 


.7986 


1.3270 


1.6616 




10 


.7214 


1.0416 


1.4439 




10 


.8004 


1.3351 


1.6681 




20 


.7234 


1.0477 


1.4483 




20 


.8021 


1.3432 


1.6746 




30 


.7254 


1.0538 


1.4527 




30 


.8039 


1.3514 


1.6812 




40 


.7274 


1.0599 


1.4572 




40 


.8056 


1.3597 


1.6878 




50 


.7294 


1.0661 


1,4617 




50 


.8073 


1.3680 


1.6945 


47 


00 


.7314 


1.0724 


1.4663 


54 


00 


.8090 


1.3764 


1.7013 




10 


.7333 


1.0786 


1.4709 




10 


.8107 


1.3848 


1.7081 




20 


.7353 


1.0850 


1.4755 




20 


.8124 


1.3934 


1.7151 




30 


.7373 


1.0913 


1.4802 




30 


.8141 


1.4019 


1.7221 




40 


.7392 


1.0977 


1.4849 




40 


.8158 


1.4106 


1.7291 




50 


.7412 


1.1041 


1.4897 




50 


.8175 


1.4193 


1.7362 


48 


00 


.7431 


1.1106 


1.4945 


55 


00 


.8192 


1.4281 


1.7434 




10 


.7451 


1.1171 


1.4993 




10 


.8208 


1.4370 


1.7507 




20 


.7470 


1.1237 


1.5042 




20 


.8225 


1.4460 


1.7581 




30 


.7490 


1.1303 


1.5092 




30 


.8241 


1.4550 


1.7655 




40 


.7509 


1.1369 


1.5141 




40 


-8258 


1.4641 


1.7730 




50 


.7528 


1.1436 


1.5192 




50 


.8274 


1.4733 


1.7806 



SINES. 



357 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants* 

{Continued.) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


56 


00 


.8290 


1.4826 


1 .7883 


63 


00 


.8910 


1.9626 


2.2027 




10 


.8307 


1.4919 


1.7960 




10 


.8923 


1.9768 


2.2153 




20 


.8323 


1.5013 


1.8039 




20 


.8936 


1,9912 


2.2282 




30 


.8339 


1.5108 


1.8118 




30 


.8949 


2.0057 


2.2412 




40 


.8355 


1.5204 


1.8198 




40 


.8962 


2.0204 


2.2543 




50 


.8371 


1.5301 


1.8279 




50 


.8975 


2.0353 


2.2677 


57 


00 


.8387 


1.5399 


1.8361 


64 


00 


.8988 


2.0503 


2.2812 




10 


.8403 


1.5497 


1.8443 




10 


.9001 


2.0655 


2.2949 




20 


.8418 


1.5597 


1.8527 




20 


.9013 


2.0809 


2.3088 




30 


.8434 


1.5697 


1.8612 




30 


.9026 


2.0965 


2.3228 




40 


.8450 


1.5798 


1.8699 




40 


.9038 


2.1123 


2.3371 




50 


.8465 


1.5900 


1.8783 




50 


.9051 


2.1283 


2.3515 


58 


00 


.8480 


1.6003 


1.8871 


65 


00 


.9063 


2.1445 


2.3662 




10 


.8496 


1.6107 


1.8959 




10 


.9075 


2.1609 


2.3811 




20 


.8511 


1.6213 


1.9048 




20 


.9088 


2.1775 


2.3961 




30 


.8526 


1.6319 


1.9139 




30 


.9100 


2.1943 


2.4114 




40 


.8542 


1.6426 


1.9230 




40 


.9112 


2.2113 


2.4269 




50 


.8557 


1.6534 


1.9323 




50 


.9124 


2.2286 


2.4426 


59 


00 


.8572 


1.6643 


1.9416 


66 


00 


.9135 


2.2460 


2.4586 




10 


.8587 


1.6753 


1.9511 




10 


.9147 


2.2637 


2.4748 




20 


.8601 


1.6864 


1.9606 




20 


.9159 


2.2817 


2.4912 




30 


.8616 


1.6977 


1.9703 




30 


.9171 


2.2998 


2.5078 




40 


.8631 


1.7090 


1.9801 




40 


.9182 


2.3183 


2.5247 




50 


.8646 


1.7205 


1.9900 




50 


.9194 


2.3369 


2.5419 


60 


00 


.8660 


1.7321 


2.0000 


67 


00 


.9205 


2.3559 


2.5593 




10 


.8675 


1.7437 


2.0101 




10 


.9216 


2.3750 


2.5770 




20 


.8689 


1.7556 


2.0204 




20 


.9228 


2.3945 


2.5949 




30 


.8704 


1.7675 


2.0308 




30 


.9239 


2.4141 


2.6131 




40 


.8718 


1.7796 


2.0413 




40 


.9250 


2.4342 


2.6316 




50 


.8732 


1.7917 


2.0519 




50 


.9261 


2.4545 


2.6504 


61 


00 


.8746 


1.8040 


2.0627 


68 


00 


.9272 


2.4751 


2.6695 




10 


.8760 


1.8165 


2.0736 




10 


.9283 


2.4960 


2.6888 




20 


.8774 


1.8291 


2.0846 




20 


.9293 


2.5172 


2.7085 




30 


.8788 


1.8418 


2.0957 




30 


.9304 


2.5386 


2.7285 




40 


.8802 


1.8546 


2.1070 




40 


.9315 


2.5605 


2.7488 




50 


.8816 


1.8676 


2.1185 




50 


.9325 


2.5826 


2.7695 


62 


00 


.8829 


1.8807 


2.1301 


69 


00 


.9336 


2.6051 


2.7904 




10 


.8843 


1.8940 


2.1418 




10 


.9346 


2.6279 


2.8117 




20 


.8857 


1.9074 


2.1637 




20 


.9356 


2.6511 


2.8334 




30 


.8870 


1.9210 


2.1657 




30 


.9367 


2.6746 


2.8555 




40 


.8884 


1.9347 


2.1786 




40 


.9377 


2.6985 


2.8779 




50 


.8897 


1.9486 


2.1902 


1 50 


.9387 


2.7228 


2.9006 



358 



SINES. 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants. 

{Continued. ) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


70 


00 


.9397 


2.7475 


2.9238 


77 


00 


.9744 


4.3315 


4 4454 




10 


.9407 


2.7725 


2.9474 




10 


.9750 


4.3897 


4.5022 




20 


.9417 


2.7980 


2.9713 




20 


.9757 


4.4494 


4.5604 




30 


.9426 


2.8239 


2.9957 




30 


.9763 


4.5107 


4,6202 




40 


.9436 


2.8502 


3.0206 




40 


.9769 


4.5736 


4.6817 




50 


.9446 


2.8770 


3.0458 




50 


.9775 


4.6382 


4.7448 


71 


00 


.9455 


2.9042 


3.0716 


78 


00 


.9781 


4.7046 


4.8097 




10 


.9465 


2.9319 


3.0977 




10 


.9787 


4.7729 


4.8765 




20 


.9474 


2.9600 


3.1244 




20 


.9793 


4.8430 


4 9452 




30 


.9483 


2.9887 


3.1515 




30 


.9799 


4.9152 


5.0159 




40 


.9492 


3.0178 


3.1792 




40 


.9805 


4.9894 


5.0886 




50 


.9502 


3.0475 


3.2074 




50 


.9811 


5.0658 


5.1636 


72 


00 


.9511 


3.0777 


3.2361 


79 


00 


.9816 


5.1446 


5.2408 




10 


.9520 


3.1084 


3.2653 




10 


.9822 


5.2257 


5.3205 




20 


.9528 


3.1397 


3.2951 




20 


.9827 


5.3093 


5.4026 




30 


.9537 


3.1716 


3.3255 




30 


.9833 


5.3955 


5.4874 




40 


.9546 


3.2041 


3.3565 




40 


.9838 


5.4845 


5.5749 




50 


.9555 


3.2371 


3.3881 




50 


.9843 


5.5764 


5.6653 


73 


00 


.9563 


3.2709 


3.4203 


80 


00 


.9848 


5.6713 


5.7588 




10 


.9572 


3.3052 


3.4532 




10 


.9853 


5.7694 


5.8554 




20 


.9580 


3.3402 


3.4867 




20 


.9858 


5.8708 


5.9554 




30 


.9588 


3.375S 


3.5209 




30 


.9863 


5.9758 


6.0589 




40 


.9596 


3.4124 


3.5559 




40 


.9868 


6.0844 


6.1661 




50 


.9605 


3.4495 


3.5915 




50 


.9872 


6.1970 


6.2772 


74 


00 


.9613 


3.4874 


3.6280 


81 


00 


.9877 


6.3138 


6.3925 




10 


.9621 


3.5261 


3.6652 




10 


.9881 


6.4348 


6.5121 




20 


.9628 


3.5656 


3.7032 




20 


.9886 


6.5606 


6.6363 




30 


.9636 


3.6059 


3.7420 




30 


.9890 


6.6912 


6.7655 




40 


.9644 


3.6470 


3.7817 




40 


.9894 


6.8269 


6.8998 




50 


.9652 


3.6891 


3.8222 




50 


.9899 


6.9682 


7.0396 


75 


00 


.9659 


3.7321 


3.8637 


82 


00 


.9903 


7.1154 


7.1853 




10 


.9667 


3.7760 


3.9061 




10 


.9907 


7.2687 


7.3372 




20 


.9674 


3.8208 


3.9495 




20 


.9911 


74287 


7.4957 


30 


1 .9681 


3.8667 


3.9939 




30 


.9914 


7.5958 


7.6613 


40 


1 .9689 


3.9136 


4.0394 




40 


.9918 


7.7704 


7.8344 




50 


• .9696 


3.9617 


4.0859 




50 


.9922 


7.9530 


8.0156 


76 


00 


' .9703 


4.0108 


4.1336 


83 


00 


.9925 


8.1443 


8.2055 




10 


.9710 


4.0611 


4.1824 




10 


.9929 


8.3450 


8.4047 




20 


.9717 


4.1126 


4.2324 




20 


.9932 


8.5555 


8.6138 




30 


.9724 


4.1653 


4.2837 




30 


.9936 


8.7769 


8.8337 




40 


.9730 


4.2193 


4.3362 




40 


.9939 


9.0098 


9.0652 




50 


.9737 


4.2747 


4.3901 




50 


.9942 


9.2553 


9.3092 



SINES. 



359 



Natural Sines, Tangents and Secants, 

( Continued. ) 



Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


Deg. 


Min. 


Sine. 


Tangent. 


Secant. 


84 


00 


.9945 


9.5144 


9.5668 


87 


00 


.9986 


19.081 


19.107 




10 


.9948 


9.7882 


9.8391 




10 


.9988 


20.206 


20.230 




20 


.9951 


10.0780 


10.1275 




20 


.9989 


21.470 


21.494 




30 


.9954 


10.3854 


10.4334 




30 


.9990 


22.904 


22.926 




40 


.9957 


10.7119 


10.7585 




40 


.9992 


24.542 


24 562 




50 


.9959 


11.0594 


11.1045 




50 


.9993 


26.432 


26.451 


85 


00 


.9962 


11.430 


11.474 


88 


00 


.9994 


28.636 


28.654 




10 


.9964 


11.826 


11.868 




10 


.9995 


31.242 


31.258 




20 


.9967 


12.251 


12.291 




20 


.9996 


34.368 


34 382 




30 


.9969 


12.706 


12.745 




30 


.9997 


38.188 


38.202 




40 


.9971 


13.197 


13.235 




40 


.9997 


42.964 


42.976 




50 


.9974 


13.727 


13.763 




50 


.9998 


49.104 


49.114 


86 


00 


.9976 


14.301 


14.336 


89 


00 


.9998 


57.290 


57.299 




10 


.9978 


14.924 


14.958 




10 


.9999 


68.750 


68.757 




20 


.9980 


15.605 


15.637 




20 


.9999 


85.940 


85.946 




30 


.9981 


16.350 


16.380 




30 


1.0000 


114.589 


114.593 




40 


.9983 


17.169 


17.198 




40 


1.0000 


171.885 


171.888 




50 


.9985 


18.075 


18.103 




50 


1.0000 


343.774 


343.775 












90 


00 


1.0000 


Infinite. 


Infinite. 



Gas Pipe Screw Threads. 



STANDARD DEPTH OF THREAD. 



Number of Threads. 


Depth of Thread. 
Inches. 


8 to the inch 


.0955 


10 " 


.0787 


11>^ " 


.068 


14 " 


.054 


18 " 


.043 


27 


.032 



BOII^:i$R GRATIS. 



A good rule for size of grates to burn coal is to m'.ke them as wide as 
the diameter of the boiler, and their length Ys of the boiler length. If wood 
is to be burned add one foot to length of grate. 



360 



SCREW THREADS. 



Standard Proportions for Screw Threads, Nuts and 
Bolt Heads. 

Recommetided b\^ the Franklin Institute and adopted by the 
Master Car Builders' Association. 



Angfle of thread 60°. 



Flat at top and bottom = 3^ of pitch 



Screw Threads. 


Nuts. 


Bolt Heads. 




C/5 PH 


^.^ .!- ! 


B 


B 


«r 


=^ 


S 


g 


en 


CO 




'2'S 


7i o^ 


o 1 


.^^ 


.2-c 


^Xi 




.2^ 


.2^ 




CO • 


It 




11 


t 




.H 


53 to 

-Sis 




Q.2 




C CO 








43 


H 


e 


1^ 


^ 


H 


H 


Q 








tj) 


tfX 






i !^ 


m 






In. 


No. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


|ln. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


y^ 


20 


.185 


.0062 j 


K 


/e 


H 


i?6 


K 


7 
16 


Va. 


h 


h 


18 


.240 


.0089 


H 


if 


h 


J€ 


M 


^1 


\\ 


K 


% 


16 


.294 


.0078 


H 


% 


% 


iQ 


it 


5/ 


\\ 


h 


-h 


14 


.344 


.0089 


If 


fl 


h 


% 


if 


l\ 


% 


^ 


13 


.400 


.0096 


% 




% 


h 


% 


B 


h 


h 


,^6 


12 


.454 


.0104 


U 


II 


h 


K 


ii 


If 


%4 


K 


% 


11 


.507 


0113 


ItV 




% 


r% 


1t^6 




\\ 


h 


% 


10 


.620 


.0125 


1¥ 


li%- 


% 


ii 


1J€ 


if\ 


- % 


H 


Vs 


9 


.731 


.0138 


l/« 


r% 


% 


M 


l/e 


1% 


If 


11 


1 


8 


.837 


.0156 


-1% 


^h 




11 


1^ 


It^e 


16 


11 


. 1^ 


7 


.940 


.0178 


lit 


IK 


i>^ 


1^ 


111 


1% 


if 


ll^6 


IM 


7 


1.065^0178 


2 


11 1 


1^ 


li'g 


, 2 


lit 


1 


ll^6 


1% 


6 


1.160 


.0208 


2t\ 


2J€ 


1% 


If'e 


2t\ 


2K 


i#. 


1^6- 


IK 


6 


1.284 


.0208 


2% 


2i% 


IK 


l/e 


, 2% 


2r% 


ii\ 


1/e 


1% 


5M 


1.389 


.0227 


2r^6 


2K 


1^ 


li^ 


2,% 


2K 


la^ 


1,-^g 


IM 


5 


1490 


.0250 


2% 


2U 


1% 


IB 


2% 


211 


1% 


lli 


1% 


5 


1.615 


.0250 


2il 


2% 


1% 


li-l 


21-f 


2% 


IH 


111 


2 


4K 


1.712 


.0277 


31^ 


3l^6 


2 


IB 


3K 


3fV 


lr^6 


HI 


2U 


4M 


1.962 


.0227 


3X 


3/e 


2M 


2i\ 


3K 


3i^w 


1% 


2f^e 


2K 


4 


2.175 


.0312 


3% 


m 


2% 


2/e 


3% 


311 


11-1 


2r^e 


2H 


4 


2.425 


.0312 


4M 


^1% 


2% 


2B 


4J^ 


^h 


2K 


2\l 


3 


3K 


2.629'. 0357 


4 5^ 


4i^« 


3 


2}S 


4^ 


^-h 


2i«« 


211 



K X diameter of bolt -|- % inch. 
IK X diameter of bolt + -^^ inch. 



Short diameter of rough nut = 

Short diameter of finished nut 

Thickness of rough nut = diameter of bolt. 

Thickness finished nut = diameter of bolt — ^q inch. 

Short diameter of rough head = IK X diameter of bolt + K inch. 

Short diameter of finished head = IK X diameter of bolt + ^^ inch 

Thickness of rough head = K short diameter of head. 

Thickness of finished head = diameter of bolt — ^q inch. 

The long diameter of a hexagon nut = short diameter X 1.155. 

The long diameter of a square nut = short diameter X 1.414. 



SCREWS — SCREENS. 



361 



Wood Screws. 

Diameter = (Number X 0.01325) -|- 0.056. 
Niimber= (Diameter — .056) h- .01325. 



No. 


Diam. 


No. 


Diam. 


No. 


Diam. 


No. 


Diam. 


No. 


Diam. 


. 


.056 


6 


.135 


12 


.215 


18 


.293 


24 


.374 


1 


.069 


7 


.149 


13 


.228 


19 


.308 


25 


.387 


2 


.082 


8 


.162 


14 


.241 


20 


.321 


26 


.401 


3 


.096 


9 


.175 


15 


.255 


21 


.334 


27 


.414 


4 


.109 


10 


.188 


16 


.268 


22 


.347 


28 


.427 


5 


.122 


11 


.201 


17 


.281 


23 


.361 


29 
30 


.440 
.453 



Needle Slot Stamp Battery Screens. 



Xo. 


Width of Slot. 


Heaviest Iron 
Russia Gauge. 


Equivalent Bir. 
Gauge. 




Inches. 


No. 


No. 


1 


.047 


16 


2IV2 


2 


.042 


16 


21 Vs 


3 


.039 


16 


21 1/2 


4 


.036 


16 


21^2 


5 


.033 


16 


2IV2 


6 


.030 


16 


211/2 


7 


.027 


16 


21 V2 


8 


.024 


15 


22y2 


9 


.021 


10 


26 


10 


.018 


8 


28 


11 


.015 


7 


29 


12 


.012 


7 


29 



All needle slots are 1/2 inch long, and set diagonallj- unless otherwise 
ordered. 



TWIST DRIIvI^S 

Should be ground to an angle of 29 degrees and 30 minutes. 



x,nAiy pip^. 



Three-eighths-inch lead pipe varies from 0.625 to 2K lbs. per foot, and 
will stand a cold water pressure of from 20 to 30 lbs. per square inch for 
the thinnest, and from 300 to 400 lbs. for the thickest. 



362 



SHAFTING. 



PAT:15NT COIyD ROI/I/ED STiE:^!^ AND IRON 
ING, PISTON RODS, :^TC. 



SHAFT- 



Diameter. 


Weight Per Foot. 


Diameter. 


Weight Per Foot. 


43^ inch. 


54.11 


1% inch. 


7.06 


4/6 " 


52.62 


ll"6 " 


6.52 


4M " 


48.26 


IV2 " 


6.01 


4 


42.75 


13^ " 


5.60 


311 " 


41.04 


1,^ " 


5.52 


3% •' 


37.57 


m " 


5.26 


3>i " 


32.73 


13/8 " 


5.05 


31^6 " 


31.58 


lf% " 


4.61 


3^ " 


30.43 


Ul " 


4.24 


31/4 '■■ 


28.22 


If^^tfo "• 


4.20 


3i^6 •' 


27.16 


1V4 " 


4.17 


3y8 " 


26.09 


If^o " 


3.86 


3 


24.05 


1,^« " 


3.77 


2{| " 


23.06 


1V8 " 


3.38 


27/8 " 


22.09 


US " 


3.20 


211 " 


21.15 


u% " 


3.11 


23/4 " 


20.21 


ll*« " 


3.02 


2H " 


19.31 


1 


2.68 


2% " 


18.41 


ii " 


2.35 


2t% " 


17.55 


if " 


2.20 


2>^ " 


16.70 


7/8 '♦ 


2.05 


2iV " 


15.89 


n " 


1.77 


23/8 " 


15.07 


3/4 " 


1.50 


2V4 " 


13.52 


H " 


1.26 


2^« " 


12.80 


% " 


1.05 


21/8 " 


12.07 


h " 


.845 


2 


10.69 


M " 


.667 



11-1 

17/8 
111 

IH 
IH 



10.03 
9.39 

8.78 
8.18 
7.61 



15 
32 

7 
16 

A3_ 
100 



.586 
.511 
.506 
.375 
.260 
.167 



THE figur:e^ nine. 

A remarkable figure is the 9. Set them down in multiplication, thus: 

1X9= 9 

2X9=18 

3X9=27 

4X9=36 

5X9=45 

6X9=54 

7X9=63 

8X9=72 

9X9=81 

10X9=90 

Now, do you see in the 10 column that it runs, reading down, 1, 2, 3, 

4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and reading up in the unit column it is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 

9, and another curious fact is that the two columns when added make 9: 

1 and 8, 2 and 7, etc. 



SOCKETS. 



363 



ARTESIAN, Oil/ AND SAI,T WEI/I/ TUBING SOCKETS. 

Standard Dimensions. 





External 




Threads Per 


Weight of 


Size. 


Diameter. 


Length. 


Inch 
of Screw. 


One 
Socket. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins. 




Pounds. 


1^ 


1.15 


2 


14 


.30 


M 


1.41 


21/8 


14 


.42 


1 


1.72 


23/8 


IIV2 


.64 


IH 


2.15 


31/4 


11 V2 


1.34 


iy2 


2.43 


SH 


ll>i 


1.47 


2 


2.97 


33/4 


IIV2 


2.58 


2V2 


3 53 


33/4 


8 


3.50 


3 


4.10 


SH 


8 


3.66 


3V2 


4.62 


3% 


8 


4.50 


4 


5.15 


4y8 


8 


7. 


4V2 


5.75 


41/8 


8 


8.25 


5 


6.37 


4% 


8 


9.60 


6 


7 37 


51/4 


8 


12.83 


7 


8.45 


6 


8 


17.75 


8 


9.43 


6V4 


8 


19.60 


9 


10.50 


614 


8 


23. 


10 


11.62 


en 


8 • 


28. 


12 


13.87 


Q% 


8 


42. 



364 



SCREW ENDS. 



UPSET scr:ew ]Bnds for round and square bars. 

standard Proportions. 







ROUND 


BARS. 






SQUARE 


BARS. 




Diam. of 

Round or 

Side of 

Square 

Bar. 
Inches. 


















Diam. of 

Upset 

Screw 

End. 

Inches. 


Diam. of 

Screw at 
Root of 
Thread. 
Inches. 


Threads 

perlnch 

No. 


Excess of 
Effective 
Area of 
Screw End 
Over Bar, 
Per Cent. 


Diam. of 

Upset 

Screw 

End. 

Inches. 


Diam. of 
Screw at 
Root of 
Thread. 
Inches. 


Threads 

perlnch 

No. 


Excess of 

Effective 
Area of 
Screw 

End Over 
Bar. 

Per Cent. 


K 


% 


.620 


10 


54 


3/4 


.620 


10 


21 


1% 


3/4 


.620 


10 


21 


7/s 


.731 


9 


33 


% 


Vs 


.731 


9 


37 


1 


.837 


8 


41 


u 


1 


.837 


8 


48 


1 


.837 


8 


17 


% 


1 


.837 


8 


25 


IVs 


.940 


7 


23 


11 


IVs 


.940 


7 


34 


11/4 


1 065 


7 


35 


% 


11/4 


1.065 


7 


48 


1% 


1.160 


6 


38 


i-l 


114 


1.065 


7 


29 


13/8 


1.160 


6 


20 


1 


1% 


1.160 


6 


35 


11/^ 


1.284 


6 


29 


Ir^o 


1% 


1.160 


6 


19 


1% 


1 389 


_ 5^2 


34 


1% 


11/2 


1.284 


6 


30 


1% 


1.389 


53^2 


20 


U\ 


11/2 


1.284 


6 


17 


13/4 


1.490 


5 


24 


IM 


1% 


1.389 


5>,' 


23 


17/8 


1.615 


5 


31 


lr\- 


1% 


1.490 


5 


29 


17/s 


1.611 


5 


19 


1% 


1% 


1.490 


5 


18 


2 


1.712 


4>^ 


22 


l/e 


1% 


1.615 


5 


26 


21/8 


1.837 


43^ 


28 


IK 


2 


1.712 


43^ 


30 


21/8 


1.837 


4K 


18 


li^6 


2 


1.712 


4K 


20 


21/4 


1.962 


4K 


24 


1% 


2V8 


1.837 


4K 


28 


23/8 


2.087 


4K 


30 


HI 


2V8 


1.837 


4J^ 


18 


23/8 


2.087 


4>^ 


20 


1% 


21/4 


1.962 


4-y, 


26 


21/2 


2.175 


4 


21 


111 


21/4 


1.962 


4K 


17 


2% 


2 300 


4 


26 


1% 


23/8 


2.087 


4.H 


24 


2% 


2.300 


4 


18 


lit 


21/2 


2.175 


4 


26 


23/4 


2.425 


4 


23 


2 


21/2 


2.175 


4 


18 


2% 


2.550 


4 


28 


2r^6 


2% 


2.300 


4 


24 


27/8 


2.550 


4 


30 


2M 


2% 


2.300 


4 


17 


3 


2.629 


33^ 


20 


2^ 


23/4 


2.425 


4 


23 


31/8 


2 754 


3K 


24 


2% 


27/8 


2.550 


4 


28 


31/8 


2.754 


33^ 


18 


2h 


27/8 


2.550 


4 


22 


314 


2.879 


3K 


22 



SCREW ENDS. 



365 







Upset 


Screw 


Knds. 














{Continued.) 












ROUND 


BARS. 






SQUARK 


BARS. 


I . i ■ ■ i 


Diam. of 

Round or 

Side of 

Square 

Bar. 

Inches. 


















Diam. of 

Upset 
Screw 
End. 
Inches. 


Diam. of 
Screw at 
Root of 
Thread. 
Inches. 


Threads 

perlncb 

No. 


Excess of 
Effective 
Area of 

Screw End 
Over Bar. 
Per Cent. 


Diam. of 
Upset 
Screw 
End. 

Inches. 


Diam. of 
Screw at 
Root of 
Thread. 
Inches. 


Threads 

Perlnch 

No. 


Excess of 

Effective 
Area of 
Screw 

End Over 
Bar. 

Per Cent. 


2% 
2/e 


3 

3M 


2.629 
2.754 


33^ 
3K 


23 

28 


3% 
3^ 


3.004 
3.004 


3>^ 

331^ 


26 
19 


2M 


3}i 


2.754 

2.879 


3>^ 
33^ 


21 
26 


33^ 
3^ 


3.100 
3.225 


33€ 

33i 


21 
24 


2% 
2U 


3Ji 
3% 


2.879 
3.004 


3K 
3K 


20 
25 


3% 
3% 


3.225 
3.317 


33^ 
3 


19 
20 


2% 
211 


33^ 
3K 


3.004 
3.100 


3K 
33€ 


19 

22 


3% 
3% 


3.442 
3.442 


3 
3 


23 

18 


2% 
2\% 


3^ 
3^ 


3.225 
3.225 


33i 
33€ 


26 
21 


4 

43^ 


3.567 
3.692 


3 
3 


21 

24 


3 

3M 


3% 
3K 


3.317 
3.442 


3 
3 


22 
21 


43-^ 


3.692 
3.923 


3 

2% 


19 
24 


3Ji 
3^ 


4 

4K 


3.567 
3.692 


3 
3 


20 
20 


43^ 
4% 


4.028 
4.153 


2% 

2% 


21 
19 


3^ 


4Ji 
4^ 


3.798 
4.028 


2% 
2% 


18 
23 










3^ 






3% 


4^ 
4% 


4.153 
4.255 


2% 
2% 


23 
21 










3% 































NITROGEN. 

A colorless, tasteless, inodorous and uninflammable gas, which consti- 
tutes % of our atmosphere, with the oxygen in which it is not chemically com- 
bined, but merely mechanically mingled. An animal placed in it dies from 
the want of oxygen, and not from any poisonous qualities of the gas. 



Lard oil does not volatiHze like the mineral oils, but decomposes, or 
burns, at about 550 to 600 degrees, the operation beginning as low as 450 
degrees. 



366 



SMOKE STACKS— STEEL PLATE* 



WEIGHTS OF SH^BT-IRON SMOK^ Sl^ACKS, P^R FOOT. 



Diameter. 


Thickness 


Weight. 


Diameter. 


Thickness 


Weight. 


Inches. 


W. G. 


Per Foot. 


Inches. 


W. G. 


Per Foot. 


10 


No. 16 


7.20 


10 


No. 14 


9.40 


12 






8.66 


12 






11.11 


14 






9.58 


14 






13.69 


16 






11.68 


16 


i 




15.00 


20 






13.75 


20 






1833 


22 






15.00 


22 






20.00 


24 






16 25 


24 






21.66 


26 






17.50 


26 






23.33 


28 






18.75 


28 






25.00 


30 






20.00 


30 


' 




26 66. 



W:^IGHT OF PIRATE STBBI/, PER SQUARE FOOT. 



Inch. 



Lbs. 



7.66 
10.20 
12 76 
15.30 



Inch. 



Lbs. 



17.86 
20.40 
22.96 
25.50 



Inch. 



Lbs. 



30.60 
35.70 

40.80 



BAR STEEL. 



367 



WiEIGHT OF BAR STiEl^Iy, PER FOOT. 



SQUARE. 



Lbs. 



.05 

.12 

.21 

.33 

.48 

.65 

.85 

1.08 

1.33 

1.61 

1.92 

2.24 

2.60 

3.06 

3.40 

4.30 

5.31 

6.43 

7.65 

8.98 

10.40 

11.90 

13.60 

15.40 

17.20 

19.20 

21.20 

23.50 

25.70 

28.20 

30.60 

33.13 

35.90 

38.64 

41.60 

44.57 

47.80 

54.40 

61.40 

68.90 

76.70 

85.00 

93 70 

102.80 

112.40 

122.40 

143.60 

166.40 

217.60 

275.60 

340.00 

411.20 

489.60 



Size. 



1 

1^ 

IH 

1% 

IK 

1% 

IH 

IVs 

2 

2}4 

2% 

2% 

2y^ 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3 

^H 

3^ 

3% 

3}4 

3% 

3% 

4 

^% 

43^ 

4% 

5 

5Ji 

53^ 

5% 

6 

6K 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



Lbs. 



.04 

.09 

.17 

.26 

.38 

.51 

.67 

.85 

1.04 

1.27 

1.50 

1.76 

2.04 

2.35 

2.67 

3.38 

4.17 

5.05 

6.01 

7.05 

8.18 

9.38 

10.71 

12.05 

13.60 

15.10 

16.68 

18.39 

20.18 

22.06 

24. 10 

26.12 

28.30 

30.45 

32.70 

35.20 

37.54 

42.72 

48.30 

54.60 

60.30 

66.80 

73.60 

80.80 

88.30 

96.10 

113.20 

130.80 

170.88 

218.40 

267.20 

323.00 

384.40 



OCTAGON. 



Size. 



% 



1 

1^ 

1% 

IK 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2K 

2% 

2% 

2K 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3 

3% 

3% 

3% 

3K 

3% 

3% 

4 

4J€ 

4-K 

4% 

5 

5^ 

5h 

o% 

6 

6K 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 



Lbs. 



.04 

.10 

.18 

.28 

.40 

.54 

.70 

.89 

1.10 

1.33 

1.58 

1.83 

2.16 

2.48 

2.82 

3.56 

4.40 

5.32 

6.34 

7.32 

8.64 

9.92 

1L28 

12.71 

14.24 

15.88 

17.65 

19.45 

21.28 

23.28 

25.36 

27.50 

29.28 

32.10 

34.56 

37.05 

39.68 

45.12 

50.84 

56.96 

63.52 

70.60 

77.80 

85.15 

93.12 

101.45 

117.12 

138.24 

180.48 

227.84 

282.40 

340.60 

405.80 



368 



STEEL BAR. 



I> - 


GO 
05 




§ 


5 


01 

05 


§ 


o 

05 


§ 




s 


§ 


c 

CO 


s 


5 


o 

X 


c 

X 


CD 


O 
b- 


c^ 


^ 


LO 


I> 


X 


O 

tH 


T-( 

tH 


CO 
tH 


T-I 


CD 


tH 


05 

T-I 


o 

Ol 


Ol 
Ol 


s 


CD 
01 


05 
01 


CO 


^ 


CD 
lO 


CO 
X 




X 
CO 


CD 


Ol 

05 


o 

01 


o 

lO 


X 


O 

o 


O 
CO 


C 

CD 


X 
X 


T- 


(^ 


LO 

05 


T-( 

CD 


o 

CD 


OJ 


CO 


LO 


CD 


l> 


X 


O 

T-I 


tH 

T-t 


01 

T— 1 


T-I 


lO 


CD 


T-l 


05 

tH 


o 

OJ 


01 
Ol 


LO 
Ol 


o 

CO 


10 


CO 


o 


CD 
Ol 


Ol 

CO 


§ 


5 


Ol 
LO 


CD 
LO 


S 


o 


o 

X 


§ 


01 

05 


c 


-* 

c 




c 
cc 


§ 


<N 


CO 


^ 


LO 


CD 


t- 


X 


05 


o 

T— ' 


T— I 


Ol 

T-I 


CO 

T-I 


r-l 


LO 


T— 1 


r- 


o 


lO 
Ol 


Tj< 


o 


lO 
LO 


5 


01 


C 

T-I 


LO 

05 


X 


LO 


01 


LO 

CO 


o 

C^l 


o 

T— 1 


Ol 
05 


c 

X 


c 

CD 


C 

CC 


c 


s 


r-( 


01 


CO 


T}^ 


LO 


LO 


CD 


I- 


X 


05 


o 

T-I 


1—1 


T-I 


Ol 


cc 

T- 

oi 

05 


LO 

T-I 
T-I 

rfi 


05 


X 
X 


;5:? 


S 


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SQUARES— SUBSTANCES. 



369 



TABIVB SHOWING SIDES OF SQUARES. 

Equal in Area to a Circle of Any Diameter, and Area of Each. 



DIAH. OF 


SIDE OF 


AREA 


DIAM. OF 


SIDE OF 


AREA 


DIAM. OF 


eiDE OF 


AREA 


CIKCLE 


SQUARE 


IN 


CIRCLE 


SQUARE 


IN 


CIRCLE 


SQUARE 


IN 


IN 


IN 


SQU^.RE 


IN 


IN 


SQUARE 


IN 


IN 


SQUARE 


INCHES. 


INCHES, 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


INCHES. 


1 


.8862 


.7854 


26 


,23.0419 


530.93 


51 


45.1976 


2042. 


2 


1.7724 


J. 1416 


27 


•23.9281 


572.56 


52 


46.0838 


2123. 


3 


2.6587 


7.0686 


28 


24.8144 


615.75 


53 


46.97 


2206. 


4 


3.4549 


12.5664 


29 


25.7006 


660.52 


54 


47.8562 


2290. 


5 


4.4311 


19.635 


30 


26.5868 


706.86 


55 


48.7425 


2376. 


6 


5.3174 


28.2744 


31 


27.473 


754.77 


56 


49.6287 


2463. 


7 


6.2036 


38.4846 


32 


28.a593 


804 25 


57 


50.5149 


2552. 


8 


7.0898 


50 2656 


33 


29.2455 


855.30 


58 


51.4012 


2642. 


9 


7.976 


63.6174 


34 


-30.1317 


907.9 


59 


52.2874 


2734. 


10 


8 8623 


78.54 


35 


31.0179 


962.12 


60 


53.1736 


2827. 


11 


9.7485 


95.03 


36 


31.9042 


1017.9 


61 


54.0598 


2922. 


12 


10.6347 


113.10 


37 


32.7904 


1075.2 


62 


.54.9061 


3019. 


13 


11.5209 


132.73 


38 


33.6766 


1134.1 


63 


55.8383 


3117. 


14 


12.4072 


153.94 


39 


34.5628 


1194.6 


64 


.56.7185 


3217. 


15 


13.2934 


176.72 


40 


35.4491 


1256.6 


65 


.57.6047 


■ 3318. 


16 


14.1796 


201.06 


41 


36.33.53 


1320.3 


6G 


.58.491 


3421. 


17 


15.0659 


226.98 


48 


.37.2215 


1385.4 


67 


.59.3772 


3526. 


18 


15.9521 


254.47 


43 


38.1078 


1452.2 


68 


60.2634 


3632. 


19 


16.8383 


283.53 


44 


38.944 


1.520.5 


69 


61.1-197 


3739. 


20 


17.7245 


314.16 


45 


39.8802 


1.590.4 


70 


62.0359 


3848. 


21 


18.6108 


346.36 


46 


-40.7664 


1661 9 


71 


62.9221 


3959. 


22 


19.497 


380.13 


47 


^1.6527 


1734.9 


72 


63.8083 


4072. 


23 


20.3832 


415.47 


48 


42.5839 


1809.5 


7;1 


64.6946 


4185. 


24 


21.2694 


452.39 


49 


43.4251 


1885.7 


T4 


65.5808 


4301. 


25 


22.1557 


490.88 


50 


44.3113 


1963.5 


75 


66.467 


4418. 



Ignition Points of Various Substances. 

Fahr. 

Phosphorus ignites at 150 deg. 

Sulphur " 500 " 

Wood " 800 " 

Coal " 1,000 " 

Lignite, in the form of dust 150 " 

Cannel Coal 200 " 

Coking " 250 " 

Anthracite 300 " 

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Substances. 

Average Weight. 
Names of Substances. Pounds. 

Anthracite, solid, of Pennsylvania 93 

" broken, loose 54 

" " moderately shaken 58 

" heaped bushel, loose (80) 

Ash, American white, dry 38 

Asphaltum 87 

Brass (Copper and Zinc), cast 504 

" rolled 524 

Brick, best pressed 150 

" common hard 125 

" soft, inferior 100 

24 



370 SUBSTANCES. 



Weight of Suhstances*— {Continued.) 

Average Weight. 
Names of Substances. Pounds. 

Brickwork, pressed brick ^^ 140 

ordinary 112 

Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American, Rosendale.. . .. 56 

" " " " " Louisville 50 

" English, Portland 90 

Cherry, dry 42 

Chestnut, dry 41 

Coal, bituminous, solid 84 

" " broken, loose 49 

" " heaped bushel, loose (74) 

Coke, loose, of good coal 27 

" " heaped bushel (38) 

Copper, cast 542 

rolled 548 

Earth, common loam, dry, loose 76 

" " " " moderately rammed 95 

" as a soft flowing mud 108 

Ebony, dry 76 

Elm, dry 35 

Flint 16^ 

Glass, common window 157 

Gneiss, common 168 

Gold, cast, pure, or 24 carat 1204 

" pure, hammered 1217 

Granite 170 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Hemlock, dry 25 

Hickory, dry 53 

Hornblende, black 203 

Ice 58.7 

Iron, cast 450 

" wrought, purest 485 

" " average , 480 

Ivory 114' 

Lead 711 

Lignum Vitae, dry 83 

Lime, quick, ground, loose, or in small lumps 53 

" " " " thoroughly shaken 75 

" '* " " per struck bushel (66) 

Limestones and marbles 168 

" " loose, in irregular fragments 96 

Mahogany , Spanisli , dry 53 

" Honduras, dry 35 

Maple, dry 49 



SUBSTANCES. 371 



Weight of Sxibstances,— Continued. 

Average Weight 
Names of Substanxes. Pounds. 

Marbles, see Limestones. 

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed 165 

" " mortar rubble 154 

"dry " (well scabbled) 138 

" " sandstone, well dressed 144 

Mercury, at 32° Fahrenheit 849 

Mica 183 

Mortar, hardened 103 

Mud, dry, close 80 to 110 

" wet, fluid, maximum 120 

Oak, live, dry 59 

Oak, white, dry 52 

" other kinds 32 to 45 

Petroleum 55 

Pine, white, dry 25 

" 3'ellow, Northern 34 

*' " Southern 45 

Platinum 1342 

Quartz, common, pure . 165 

Rosin 69 

Salt, coarse, Syracuse, N. Y 45 

" Liverpool, fine, for table use 49 

Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose 90 to 106 

" well shaken 99 to 117 

" perfectly wet 120 to 140 

Sandstone, fit for building 151 

Shales, red or black : 162 

Silver 655 

Slate 175 

Snow, freshly fallen 5 to 12 

" moistened and compacted by rain 15 to 50 

Spruce, dry 25 

Steel '. 490 

Sulphur 125 

Sycamore, dry 37 

Tar 62 

Tin, cast 459 

Turf or Peat, drj-, unpressed 20 to 30 

Walnut, black, dry 38 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 60° Fahrenheit 62V3 

*' sea. 64 

Wax, bees 60.5 

Zinc or Spelter ? 437 

Green timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half more than dry. 



372 SPLICE JOINTS— STEEL. 



SPI/ICB JOINTS Pl^R Mll^ie OF TRACK. 

Two Bars and Four Bolts and Nuts to ^ach Joint. 

Rails, 20 feet long, 528 joints. 
24 " " 440 
26 " " 406 
28 " " 378 
30 " " 352 

The length of rails as usually sold is 90 per cent 30 feet long, and 10 
per cent 24 to 28 feet long, requiring 357 splice joints per mile. 

The average weight of splice joints (complete with 2 bars and 4 bolts 
and nuts) is as follows: 

For rails of 16 to 20 lbs. per yard, each joint weighs 5 to 6 lbs. 

24 " 28 " *' " " 6 '• 8 " 

30 " 35 •' " " " 10 " 12 " 

30 " 50 " " " '• 12 " 16 " 

56 " 60 " " '* " 18 " 24 " 

STBEI/. 

Rule for Ascertaining the Weight of Square, Round or Flat 
Tool Steel by Measurement. 

Square Tool Steel, one foot in length. When the dimensions are given 
in fourths of an inch, square the number of fourths in the size given, and 

divide the product by 4.5 

If given in eighths, the divisor is 18. 

" sixteenths. " 72. 

thirty-seconds, " 288. 

" sixty-fourths, " 1152. 

Round Tool Steel, one foot in length. When the dimensions are given 
in iourths of an inch, square the number of fourths in the diameter, and 

divide the product by 6. 

If given in eighths, the divisor is 24. 

" sixteenths, " 96. 

" thirty-seconds, " 384. 

sixty-fourths, ' 1536. 

Flat Tool Steel, one foot in length. When the dimensions are given in 
fourths of an inch, multiply the width by the thickness in fourths, and 

divide the product by 4.5 

If given in eighths, the divisor is 18. 

" sixteenths, " 72. 

" thirty-seconds, " 288. 

" sixty-fourths, " 1152. 

To find the weight of steel, wrought, and cast iron, by measurement. 
Rule: Find the number of cubic inches in the bar, or piece, and multi- 
ply by .285 for steel, .28 for wrought iron, and .26 for cast iron. 



STEEL. 



373 



STANDARD FII,15 ST:^]©^ SI^^S. 



SIZE OF STEEL. 



SIZE OF 








FILE 








L\ LNCHES. 


SQUARE AND 
ROUND. 


FLAT. 


MILL. 


3 in. 


i-^in. 


1% X 14 gauge. 


il X 16 gauge. 


4 " 


#2 " 


r'e X 12 " 


r\Xl4 " 


5 " 




ilxio •' 


H X 13 " 


6 " 


3\" 


%X 8 " 


% X 11 " 


7 " 


% " 


II X 7 


11 X 10 " 


8 '• 


if " 


i-lX 6 " 


ilX 9 " 


•9 " 


\\ " 


IfX 5 " 


ifX 8 " 


10 " 


% " 


1 X '4 in. 


1 X ^s in. 


11 " 


7 »< 
16 


1^2 X 2 gauge. 


l3\ X hi m. 


12 " 


% " 


li\X4tm. 


U% X /a in. 


13 " 




1/2 X li " 


I3T X 4 gauge. 


14 " 


% " 


111 X M " 


IflX 3 " 


15 " 


B " 


l/e- X % " 


li^e X 2 " scant. 


16 " 


% " 


IH X ii " 


l^i X 2 " full 


17 " 


\% '■ 


irs X M " 


1% X 1 " 


18 " 


Vs " 


111 X /e " 


111 XI" full. 


19 " 


if " 


lit X li " 


11-1 X % in. 


20 " 


1 " 


111 X h% " 


HI X ^ " 



Standard File Steel Sues. 





SIZE OF STEEL. 




SIZE OF 








FILE. 










HALF ROUND. 


TAPER. 


HORSE RASP. 


3 in. 


1% X 13 gauge. 


a A 




3V2" 




II " 




4 " 


h X 11 " 


% " 




4V2" 




H " 




5 " 


hlX 9 " 


/b " 




r.y2" 




hi " 




6 •* 


f^ X 7 " 


K " 




61/2" 




11 " 




7 " 


II X 6 " 


r^e " 




8 " 


1-1 X 4 " 


a " 




9 " 


II X 3 " 


n " 




10 " 


1 X i^ in. 


49 <( 
R4 


16^4 X If in. 


11 " 


1/4 X f^e " 


si " 


i|i X 11 " 


12 " 


1^ X hi " 


32 


lA X 3% '' 


13 " 


IHX % '• scant. 


M " 


lit X 1^ " 


.14 " 


m X ii " 


13S " 


1}4 X -H " 


15 " 


ii^ X n " 


1/4 " 


111 X ^i " 


16 " 


111 X n " 


lu " 


HI X 1^ " 


17 " 


m X u " 




111 X M " 


18 " 


111 X H " 




1% X M " 


19 •' 


i%x Al " 




nixH " 


20 " 


2 X ,% " 




2 X i'e " 



374 



STEEL. 



TD^MPieRING STEEi;. 



TEMPERATURE. 


COLOR. 


USE. 


482° Fahr. 




Pale yellow. 


Surgical instruments. 


446° " 




Straw. 


Penknives, razors, wood 
tools. 


491° " 




Brown yellow. 


Chisels and scissors. 


509° " 




Purplish 


Axles, heavy knives. 


527° " 




Purple. 


Table knives, springs. 


534° " 




Pale blue. 


Watch springs, swords. 


563° " 




Dark blue. 


Fine saws, drills. 


600° " 




Very dark blue. 


Hand saws. 


662° " 


1 


Very dark blue, vergin or 
green. 


Too soft for any ordinary 
tools. 



Bath for Hardening Steel. 

To 170 gallons of water, add 1/2 pint oil of vitriol, V2 pound of alum, H 
pound of borax, % pound prussiate of potash. Add sufficient salt to make 
a potato float on the water. 

Do not heat steel too highly, and dip vertically. 

Directions for Scaling Sheet Steel. 

Fill a vat with warm water to about 120 degrees Fahr., and add sul- 
phuric acid until it boils up. 

Agitate the sheets in this bath until they are free from scale, then rinse 
them in two clean cold water baths. 

Lastly, pass the sheets through lime water boiling hot. 

Crucible Cast Steel. 

Commonly called Tool Steel— contains carbon as follows: 

Razor Temper, 1^ per cent of carbon. 

Turning Tool Temper, l}i per cent of carbon. 

Punch Temper, 1 3^ per cent of carbon. 

Chisel Temper, 1 per cent of carbon. 

Sett Temper, Vs per cent of carbon. 

Die Temper, % per cent of carbon. 

Mushet Steel. 

It is said that Mushet Steel can be annealed by heating it up thoroughly 
to a light yellow— just short of burning — and then burying it in hot ashes, 
or in perfectly dry Hme so as to exclude the air, and leaving it there until 
cold. 

To harden it again: Heat as before, and suspend in cold air. It must 
not be brought in contact with water, whether it be warm or cold. 



SOUND — STONE. 



375 



Distances in Feet Which Sound Travels in Air, 



Time of 


Temperature 


OF THE Air 


, Fahrenheit. 


Travel. 












Seconds. 


50° Feet. 


60° Feet. 


70° Feet. 


80° Feet. 


90° Feet. 


1 


1,109.6 


1,120.6 


1,131.1 


1,142.5 


1,153.2 


2 


2,219.2 


2,241.2 


2,262.2 


2,885.0 


2,306.4 


3 


3,328.8 


3,361.8 


3,393.3 


3,427.5 


3,459.6 


4 


4,438.4 


4,482.4 


4,524.4 


4,570.0 


4,612.8 


5 


5,548.0 


5,603.0 


5,655.5 


5,712.5 


5,766.0 


6 


6,657.6 


6,723.6 


6,786.6 


6,855.0 


6,919.2 


7 


7,767.2 


7,844.2 


7,917.7 


7,997.5 


8,072.4 


8 


8,876.8 


8,964.8 


9,048.8 ' 


9,140.0 


9,225.6 



Screw Cutting. 

To set compound gears. 

Rule: Divide the number of threads per inch to be cut by the number 
of threads per inch on the lead screw. The quotient will be the propor- 
tional number. 

Select a gear for mandrel, and also one for smaller wheel of compounded 
pair, and multiply them together; then multiply the product thus found by 
the proportional number. 

Select another gear for larger wheel of compounded pair and divide it 
into the above product, and the quotient will give the wheel to be placed 
upon the lead screw. Judgment must be used in selecting the mandrel 
wheel and wheels of compounded pair, as the thread to be cut is either 
coarser or finer than pitch of lead screw. 

Weights of Stone per Cubic Foot. 

Limestone from 120 to 185 pounds. 
Sandstone from 120 to 170 pounds. 
1 cubic yard of solid stone work makes 1| cubic yards of broken rock. 

Average Crushing Loads on Stone, in Tons, per Square Foot. 

Limestone and Marble 625 Tons. 

Sandstone 350 

Brick 170 

Portland Cement 112 

Concrete, fresh 15 

" six months 60 

12 " 95 

Rubble Masonry in Mortar 35 

Rubble masonry work will average about 175 pounds to the cubic foot, 
1/4 being considered xjiortar, leaving the weight of rock about 130 pounds 
per foot. 

Ordinary rubble work will average about 130 pounds per foot. 
A perch of limestone rock will weigh about 2,150 pounds. 



376 



TANKS. 



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378 



TACKS— TIMBER. 



TACKS. 



Title. 


Length. 


No. per Lb. 


Title. 


Length. 


No. per Lb. 


1 oz. 


Vs inch. 


16,000 


10 oz. 


11-16 inch. 


1,600 


iy2*' 


3-16 " 


10,666 


12 " 


% 


1,33?. 


2 " 


1/4 " 


8,000 


14 " 


13-16 " 


1,143 


2^2" 


5-16 " 


6,400 


16 " 


% 


1,000 


3 " 


% " 


5,333 


18 " 


15-16 " 


888 


4 " 


7-16 " 


4,000 


20 " 


1 


800 


6 " 


9-16 " 


2,666 


22 " 


1 1-16 " 


727 


8 " 


% " 


2,000 


24 " 


IH 


666 



r:^i,ativ^ dimensions of typ:^. 

Pica has 72 lines to the foot. 

Long Primer 90 " " 

Brevier 112 " " 

Nonpareil 144 " " 

These figures are not absolutely correct, but are an average of the 

bodies of the various typefounders, and accurate enough for all practical 

purposes. 

STONE WEI/I/ TUBING. 

Vitrified and salt-glazed, without socket, in 2 and 3-foot lengths. 



Diameter. 


Weight. 


6-inch bore, 


8-inch outside. 


15 pounds. 


8 




10 


20 " 


9 




11 


25 


10 




12 


30 


12 




15 


45 


15 




18 


60 


18 




21 


80 



TO FIND SOWDITY OF TIMBER. 

ROUND TIMBER. 

When all the dimensions are in feet. 
Length multiplied by square of M of mean girth equal cubicfeet. 

When length in feet, girth in inches. 
Multiply as above, and divide by 144. 

When £ill dimensions are in inches. 
Multiply ^s above, and divide by 1728. 



TIMBER. 



379 



SQUARE TIMBER. 

When all dimensions are in feet. 
Length multiplied by breadth multiplied by depth, equal cubic feet. 

When either dimensions are in inches. 
Multiply as above, and divide by 12. 

When any two of the dimensions are in inches. 
Multiply as above, and divide by 14-4. 

Or use the following table as shown at foot of same. 



TABLE ONE-FOURTH GIRTHS. 



14 Girth 


Area in 


^ Girth 


Area in 


^ Girth 


Area in 


14 Girth 


Area in 


in ins. 


Feet. 


in ins. 


Feet. 


in Ins. 


Feet. 


in Ins. 


Feet. 


6 


.250 


lOH 


.803 


15M 


1.66 


22y^ 


3.51 


• H 


.272 


11 


.840 


% 


1.72 


23 


3.67 


}4 


.294 


4 


.878. 


16 


1.77 


H 


3.83 


H 


.317 


'A 


.918 


4 


1.83 


24 


4.00 


7 


.340 


% 


.959 


% 


1.89 


3^ 


4.16 


'4 


.364 


12 


1.000 


% 


1.94 


25 


4.34 


K 


.390 


4 


1.04 


17 


2.00 


y% 


4.51 


H 


.417 


A 


1.08 


4 


2.06 


26 


4.69 


8 


.444 


% 


1.12 


% 


2.12 


^ 


4.87 


H 


.472 


13 


1.17 


% 


2.18 


27 


5.06 


X 


.501 


4 


1.20 


18 


2.25 


K 


5.25 


H 


.531 


% 


1.26 


M 


2.37 


28 


5.44 


9 


.562 


% 


1.31 


19 


2.50 


K 


5.64 


H 


.594 


14 


1.36' 


y^ 


2.64 


29 


5.84 


^ 


.626 


Va. 


1.41 


20 


2.77 


K 


6.04 


% 


.659 


K 


1.46 


K 


2.91 


30 


6.25 


10 


.694 


% 


1.51 


21 


3.06 






X 


.730 


15 


1.56 


K 


3.20 






K 


.766 


4 


1.61 


22 


3.36 







Area corresponding to the 14. girth in inches multiplied by length in feet 
gives solidity in feet and decimal parts for either square or round timber. 

In Round Timber take the mean girth. Square Timber take the side, 
which in practice corresponds with i/4 of the girth of Round Timber. 

To Obtain the Volume, in Cubic Feet, of a Tapering Stick of 
Squared Timber. 

Rule: Add together the areas of the end and four times the area of 
the section at the middle of its length, measured in square feet, and multiply 
the sum by one-sixth the length of the stick. 

The result divided by 12 will give the contents in feet, in board 
measure. 



380 



TIMBER. 



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TIMBER— TILE. 



,QI 



Board Measure of Timber. 



Dimensions 


No. ofFeetB, M. 


Dimensions 


No. ofPeetB. M. 


in Inches. 


per Linear Foot. 


in Inches. 


per Linear Foot. 


2X6 


1 


7X 16 


QVs 


2X8 


IX 


8X 8 


5H 


2X 10 


IVs 


8X10 


6^ 


2X 12 


2 


8X 12 


8 


2 X 14 


2H 


8X14 


9X 


3X 6 


ly. 


8X 16 


• 10^ 


3X 8 


2 


10 X 10 


SVs 


■ 3X10 


2y, 


10 X 12 


10 


3X 12 


3 


10 X 14 


11^ 


3X14 


sy 


10 X 16 


13>t^ 


4X 6 


2 


12 X 12 


12 


4X 8 


2% 1 


12 X 14 


14 


4X 10 


3>^ 


12 X 15 


15 


4X 12 


4 


12 X 16 


16 


4X 14 


4% 


12 X 18 


18 


4X 16 


5X 


14 X 14 


16>^ 


6X 6 


3 


14 X 16 


18^ 


6X 8 


4 


14 X 18 


21 


6X 10 


5 


f 16X16 


21K 


6X 12 


6 


16 X 18 


24 


6X 14 


7 


18 X 18 


27 


6X 16 


8 


18 X 20 


30 


- 7X 7 


^ih 


20 X 20 


33X 


7X9 


5}i 


24 X 24 


48 



To ascertain the contents of a stick, multiply the length by the number 
of feet opposite the dimension in the above table. 



averag:^ weight and arisa of drain tii^e. 



Size in Inch. 
Diameter Inside. 


Weight pe 


1 
r Foot. No, Car Load. 


Area Deci- 
mally Ex. 


3 inches. 

4 

5 


5 LI 

7 ' 
9 ' 


3s. "o.-^a^g 

: 1 ^'^-ii 


6.9 in. 
12.33 " • 
19.6 " 


6 " 


11 ' 


: ! hiV 


28.27 " 


7 " 


14 • 


38.46 " 


8 " . 


17 ' 


^•c|^>^ 


50.26 " 


10 


22 ' 




• 78.54 " 


12 


231/2 ' 


113.09 " 


15 


50 ' 


176.77 '* 


18 


65 ' 


sss^a 


254.65 " 



382 



TILE— TUBES. 



Carrying Capacity of Tile. 

When the number of acres to be drained, and grade of drain is known 
it is easy to determine the size of the tile required by the following table, 
which shows the number of gallons discharged per minute, for specified 
sizes and grades: 

CARRYING CAPACITY— GALLONS PER MINUTE. 



Size of Tile. 
Diameter Inside. 




St 

^ a 


^1 

II 


6 Inch Fall 
per 100 Feet. 




11 
II 


II 


11 
§1 


q Inch 


13 

27 

75 

153 

205 

267 

422 

740 

1168 

2396 

4187 


19 

38 

105 

216 

290 

378 

596 

1021 

1651 

3387 

5920 


23 

47 

129 

265 

355 

463 

730 

1282 

2022 

4153 

7252 


32 

66 

183 

375 

593 

655 

1033 

1818 

2860 

5871 

10257 


40 

81 

224 

460 

617 

803 

1273 

2224 

3508 

7202 

12580 


46 

93 

258 

529 

711 

926 

1468 

2464 

4045 

8303 

14504 


64 

131 

364 

750 

1006 

1310 

2076 

3617 

5704 

11744 

20516 


79 


4, " 


163 


6 " 


450 


8 " 


923 


Q " 


1240 


10 " 


1613 


12 " 


2554 


15 •' 


4467 


18 " 


7047 


24 " 


14466 


30 " 


25257 



Statistics show the maximum rain fall to be about one inch per hour, 
except during very heavy and uncommon storms. 

One inch rain fall per hour gives 22,633 gallons per hour for each acre, 
or 377 gallons per minute per acre. 

Drain Tiles are 12 inches long. 



Weight of Braised Copper Tubes, 

(per RUNNING FOOT, IN POUNDS.) 



Diam. 


Thickness 


in Inches. 


Diam. 


Thickness in Inches. 






Inch. 




Inch. 




1 




















i^e 


% h 


V4 


fe 


/e 




iV 


Vs 


1% 


% 


h 


T^. 


1 


.8 


1.2 


1.7 


2.7 


3.8 


4.9 


3 


2.3 


3.5 


4.7 


7.3 9.9|l2.5 


1% 


1. 


1.5 


2.1 


3.3 


4.5 


6. 


3V2 


2.7 


4. 


5.5 


8.411.4 


14.4 


IV2 


1.2 


1.8 


2.5 


3.8 


5.3 


6.9 


4 


3. 


46 


6.3 


9.5 


12.9 


16.3 


1% 


1.4 


2.1 


28 


4.4 


6. 


7.8 


4V2 


3.4 


5.2 


7. 


10.7 


14.4 


18.2 


2 


1.5 


2.4 


3.2 


4.9 


6.8 


8.7 


5 


3.8 


5.7 


7.8 


11.8 


16. 


20.1 


2% 


1.8 


2.6 


3.6 


5.5 


7.6 


9.7 


51/2 


4.2 


6.3 


8.5 


13.1 


17.5 


22.5 


21/2 


1.9 


2.9 


4. 


6.1 


8.4 


10.6 


6 


4.6 


6.8 9.3 


14.1 


19. 


23.9 


2% 


2.1 


3.2 


4.4 


6.7 


9.1 


11.7 















TUBING. 



383 



Brass and Bronze Brazed Tubing— Brown & Sharpe's Gauge. 

OUTSIDE DIAMETERS. 

Round, plain, from Vs inch to 3 inch — No. 17 



(( (( (< 


i\ " 


" Ih ' 


' — ' 


' 22 


Square, " " 


f% " 


" 11/4 ' 


' — ' 


' 17 


(( (( n 


/« " 


" A ' 


' — 


' 22 


Round, rope, " 


6 it 
16 


" 1 


' — 


' 17 


(( (< <( 


% " 


" 1V4 ' 


* — 


' 22 


cable, " 


% " 


" 1 


' — 


' 17 


Square, twisted " 


% " 


.4 1 '< 


— 


' 17 


4( 4< H 


% " 


" IH 


• — 


'• 22 



Table of Weights per I/ineal Foot of Seamless Brass and 
Copper Tubing. 



IRON PIPE SIZES. 





Same as Iron Size. 


WEIGHT PER FOOT. 


Outside Diameter. 










Brass. 


Copper. 






Lbs. 


Lbs. 


n 


Vs'' 


.32 


.33 


t% 


y^" 


.43 


.44 


\h 


%'' 


.58 


.60 


H 


y^" 


.81 


.85 


li\ 


w 


1.19 


1.25 


ll^6 


1 '^ 


1.66 


1.74 


1% 


1V4^^ 


2.42 


2.54 


IH 


IV2'' 


2.92 


3.07 


2% 


2 '' 


3.90 


4.09 


2% 


2y2" 


5.14 


5.41 


3K 


3 '^ 


8.08 


8.50 


4 


3V2'^ 


10.20 


10.60 


4.H 


4 '^ 


12.70 


13.30 


5H 


5 '^ 


16.00 


16.80 


6H 


6 '' 


18.00 


18.90 



HYDROGEN. 



A gas which, combined with oxygen, in the proportion of 1 part by 
weight of hydrogen, to 8 parts of oxygen, produces water. It is colorless, 
tasteless, inodorous, inflammable, and will not support animal life. Its 
specific gravity as compared with common air is as 69 to 1,000, and is ex- 
actly sixteen times hghter than oxygen. 



384 



TUBING. 



Seamless Drawn Brass and Copper Tubing, for l/ocomotive, 
Stationary and Marine Boilers, and Many Other Purposes. 

LIST OF STANDARD SIZES, WEIGHTS, ETC., OF SEAMLESS DRAWN TUBING. 









WT. PER FOOT 


1 


1 




WT. PER FOOT. 


Outside 


B.&S. 
Gauge 


Stubs' 
Gauge 






Outside 
Diam. 


B.&S. 
Gauge 


Stubs' 
Guage 






Diam. 












Brass. 


Cop'r. 


1 






Brass. 


Copper. 








Lbs. 


Lbs. 








Lbs. 


Lbs. 


M 


20 


21 






1% 


12 


14 


1.65 


1.74 


i^ 


20 


21 






1% 


11 


13 


1.79 


1.88 


¥ 


17 


19 


.11 


.12 


i 2 


11 


13 


2.10 


2.21 


1% 


17 


19 


.15 


.16 


! 2U 


10 


12 


2.71 


2.85 


% 


17 


19 


.18 


.19 


21/2 


10 


12 


3.02 


3.18 


h 


17 


19 


.23 


.24 


2% 


10 


12 


3.33 


3.51 


1/ 


16 


18 


.27 


.29 


3 


9 


11 


4.01 


4.22 


1^6- 


16 


18 


.30 


.32 


31/4 


8 


10 


4.94 


5.20 


% 


16 


18 


.33 


.35 


31/2 


8 


10 


5.35 


5.63 


% 


15 


17 


.46 


.49 


4 


8 


10 


6.14 


6.46 


% 


15 


17 


.53 


.58 


41/4 


8 


10 


6.52 


6.86 




14 


16 


.67 


.71 


4y2 


8 


10 


6.92 


7.28 


IM 


14 


16 


.76 


.80 


43/4 


8 


10 


7.30 


7.68 


Ik' 


13 


15 


.97 


1.02 


5 


8 


10 


7.67 


8.08 


\% 


12 


14 


1.22 


1.29 


6 


8 


10 


9.31 


9.79 


lU 


12 I 


14 


1.36 


1.44 


63/8 


5 


7 


12.93 


13.60 



Seamless Copper Tubes for Coppersmiths' Use. 

ALL NO. 14 stubs' GAUGE. 



Outside Diameter. 


Weight per Foot. 


Inside Diameter. 


Weight per Foot 


2 inch. 


1.94 






2V2 " 


2.45 


2 


2.09 


3 


2.95 


2H 


2.60 


3V2 " 


3.46 


3 


3.08 


4 


3.97 


3K 


3.60 


5 


4.98 


4 


4.13 


6 


5.99 







Boiler Tubes. 

To £nd the internal bursting pressure of boiler tubes. 

Rule: Multiply the tensile strength of the material of the tube per 
square inch in pounds by twice the thickness of the tube in inches, or parts 
of an inch. Divide this product by the diameter of the tube in inches, and 
the quotient will be the bursting pressure. This rule applies to short tubes. 
For long tubes the bursting pressure is less. 



TUBING. 



385 



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T-ic5XJ>'sDTj'^Lec5^Tf<i>e:Tf-(Mcr.xM^ 
ioc^ci:-L':rexc5Cr-ir-r^oireTj<T}-T^iOTf< 

Oi CO rj! Tj! lO CD l> C tjJ J^ 6 CO d d Oi 10 X r^ -^ 

T-irHrHT-r-lr-!rHC^M(Mo:rOCerOTfTj.T}<LOLO 



3§nBg 3JIAV 



•SS3U5J3iqX 



CI ^ 






oit-rexcoo i-^oot^cdxo^^c^t^ 
iorcoicc5b-LOC5ret^'-LOC5Tf<xcsicDr-iLO 

COr-iCit^Tj<OJXOT-<<MTf<lOCCXC5i-i01'*LO 



coT}*Tj<Locct^Xi-iLOXr-iTj«t^crot-ocecD 

^r-lr-ii-r-r-ir-lOlOJOJCOrereT^Tf'^LeLeLOj 



ooocsriCixxxt^cCLOTf'Tf'cecer^r^o 



^ tj< t}< X X X LO Lo LO re o x x o tJ< 
cocero-^Tf<T}<cDcccoxooic^reT}<iox -^ 

rHr-(i-HT-irHr-ii-ii-ir-^C^(MO<C^C^OJOirCCC 



CSJCMOlTj<-f<^ t}< OlT}<Ti^MC^ 

XCOXOLOCt^t^t^^ClCDTfCviOXCO M 

c:5 c^ t}. i>. o M ci CD CO CD uo LO Lo uo LO tJ< -* T^^ re 
coT^TfiT^T^iOLOcDi^x'ddr-'oice^'iocoi^ 



tJ< Tf< tj« LO Lo LO CO t^ X c; c r^ 01 re -t LO CD 1^ X 



0+" 3 



CcS o 

r " *• 

coo 



■lis 

-p -> do 
due 

•- = t 



388 



TUBES. 



I/ap-Welded Charcoal Iron Marine Boiler Tubes. 

Of Thickness of Metal Required by U. S. Law for Western Waters. 



Diame- 
ter, 


THICKNESS. 


Circum- 
ference. 


Trans- 
verse Area. 


External 

Surface 

perl Foot 

Length of 
Tube. 


Nominal 
Weight- 
per Foot 


Exter. 
Inches. 


Inches. 


Wire 
Gauge. 


External 
Inches. 


Internal 
Sq. Ins. 




Sq. Feet. 


Lbs. 


12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


.24 
.26 
.28 
.29 
.3125 


4 
3 

2 

1 


37.699 
40.841 
43.982 
47.124 
50.265 


104.23 
122.33 
141.87 
163.31 
185.66 


3.142 
3.403 
3.665 
3.927 
4.189 


29.8 

35.0 

40.58 

45.06 

51.77 



CARBON. 



A non-metallic elementary solid body, which is widely diffused through- 
out nature, being found in all vegetable and animal substances, and form- 
ing the principal element of the various kinds of mineral coal; it is the pure 
combustible base of charcoal. 



CARBONIC ACID. 



Is composed of one equivalent of carbon and two of oxygen. When un- 
combined, it exists in the form of a gas, but may be reduced to a liquid 
under a pressure of 36 atmospheres, and even to a soHd form like snow by 
the intense cold consequent on the rapidity of its evaporation from the 
liquid state; it is a constant product of combustion and of respiration, and 
when unmixed with atmospheric air, extinguishes flame and suffocates 
animals. 



389 






. 


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light] 
Foot 


t: 


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u 


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cu 


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-f^ CO CO T^ c^i -* 


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ca 


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390 



TUBING. 



W^I/I/ TUBING. 

Flush Joint. 

FINISHED SMOOTH INSIDE AND OUTSIDE. 



Nominal Inside 


Actual Outside 


Weight per Foot. 


No. ofThreads 


Diameter. Incbes. 


Diameter. Inches. 


Pounds. 


per Inclifof Screw. 


2 


2.37 


3.61 


12 


2y^ 


2.87 


5.74 


12 


3 


3.50 


7.54 


12 


3K 


4.00 


9.00 


12 


4 


4.50 


10.66 


12 


4K 


5.00 


12.34 


12 


5 


5.56 


14.50 


12 


6 


6.62 


18.76 


12 


7 


7.62 


23.27 


12 


8 


8.62 


28,18 


12 


9 


9.68 


33.70 


12 


10 


10.75 


40.06 


12 


11 


11.75 


45.02 


12 


12 


12.75 


49.00 


12 


13 


14.00 


53.92 


12 


14 


15.00 


57.89 


12 


15 


16.00 


66.00 


12 



Flush joint tubing is of uniform inside and outside diameter, when 
screwed together. 

Machine Screw Taps. 

AMERICAN SCREW CO.'S STANDARD. 



Size of Screw 
Gauge. 


No. of Threads 


to Inch. 


Size of Drill to Drill 
for Tapping. 


No 2 


56 






No. 


53 


3 


48 






" 


48 


4 


36 


40 




" 


43 


5 


40 






" 


42 


6 


32 






" 


33 


8 


32 






" 


28 


" 10 


24 


32 




" 


24 


" 12 


24 






" 


17 


" 14 


20 


24 




" 


6 


" 16 


16 


18 


20 


" 


3 


" 18 


16 


18 


20 


^1 


inch . 


" 20 


16 


18 




17 
64 


" 


" 24 


16 






19 


" 


" 28 


14 


16 




21 
64 


(< 


" 30 


14 


16 




H 


(( 



TAPS — THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 



391 



Speed of Taps for Gas and Steam Pipe Fittings. 

Size of Tap. Revolutions per Minute. 

y2inch 150 

% inch 100 

linch 70 

114 inch 56 

11/2 inch 40 

2 inch 20 

21/2 inch 14 to 16 

3 inch 10 to 12 

3V2to 4 inch 8 to 9 

SHRINKAGIS OF TIRES. 

38 inch diameter, .040 inch allowance for shrinkage. 



44 " 


.047 " 


50 " 


.053 " 


56 " 


.060 " 


62 " 


.066 " 


66 " 


.070 '• 



Machine steel may be strained to 30,000 pounds per square inch with- 
out giving any permanent set, or exceeding its elastic limit. 

A strain oi 30,000 pounds causes an elastic stretch of roooth part of 
its length. 

As a general rule, allow roooth part of an inch for every inch in diam- 
eter for shrinkage. 

COMPARISON OF THl^RMOMBTRIC SCAI,:i5S. 

To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply 
by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, multiply by 
4 and divide by 5. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32, 
multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32, 
divide by 9, and multiply by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 
9, divide by 4, and add 32. 

In De Lisle's thermometer, used in Russia, the gradation begins at 
boiling point, which is marked zero, and the freezing point is 150. 
Example : 
• 100° Centigrade equal 212° Fahrenheit. 
Thus: 

100 X 9 = 900 
900 
5 
180 + 32 = 212 
212° Fahrenheit equal 100° Centigrade. 
212 — 32 = 180 
180 X 5 = 900 

^^=100 
9 



180 



392 



TRAINS — TIME. 



SP^ED TABLE FOR TRAINS. 



Speed 


Time 


OF 


Performing. 


• Speed 


Time 


OF 


Performing. 


per 














per 
Hour. 














Hour. 


1/4 Mile. 


1/2 Mile. 


1 IV 


rile. 

s. 


14 Mile. 


V2 Mile. 


1 Mile. 


Miles. 


M 


s. 


M. 


S. 


M. 


Miles.. 


M. 


s. 


M 


S. 


M. 


S. 


5 


3 





6 





12 





33 





27 





54 




49 


6 


2 


30 


5 





10 





34 





26 





53 




46 


7 


2 


8 


4 


17 


8 


34 


35 





25 





51 




43 


8 




52 


3 


45 


7 


30 


36 





25 





50 




40 


9 




40 


3 


20 


6 


40 


37 





24 





48 




37 


10 




30 


3 





6 





38 





23 





47 




34 


11 




21 


2 


43 


5 


27 


39 





23 





46 




32 


12 




15 


2 


30 


5 





40 





22 





45 




30 


13 




9 


2 


18 


4 


37 


41 





21 





43 




27 


14 




4 


2 


8 


4 


17 


42 





21 





42 




25 


15 







2 





4 





43 





20 





41 




23 


16 





56 




52 


3 


35 


44 





20 





40 




21 


17 





53 




46 


3 


41 


45 





20 





40 




20 


18 





50 




40 


3 


20 


46 





19 





39 




18 • 


19 





47 




34 


3 


9 


47 





19 





38 




16 


20 





45 




30 


3 





48 





18 





37 




15 


21 





42 




25 


2 


51 


49 





18 





36 




13 


22 





40 




21 


2 


43 


50 





18 





36 




12 


23 





39 




18 


2 


36 


51 





17 





35 




10 


24 





37 




15 


2 


30 


52 





17 





34 




9 


25 





36 




12 


2 


24 


53 





17 





34 




7 


26 





34 




9 


2 


18 


54 





16 





33 




6 


27 





33 




6 


2 


13 


55 





16 





32 




5 


28 





32 




4 


2 


8 


56 





16 





32 




4 


29 





31 




2 


2 


4 


57 





15 





31 




3 


30 





30 







2 





58 





15 





31 




2 


31 





29 





58 


1 


56 


59 





15 





30 




1 


32 





28 





56 


1 


52 


60 





15 





30 








TABTvB SHOWING DIFFERENCE OF TIME AT 12 
O'CI^OCK (NOON) AT NEW YORK. 

New York 12.00 Noon. 

Buffalo 11.40 A. M. 

Cincinnati 11.18 

Chicago 11.07 

St. Louis 10.55 

San Francisco , 8.45 

New Orleans 10.56 

Washington 11.48 

Charleston 11.36 

Havana , 11.25 

Boston 12.12 P. M. 



UNIONS— VALVE. 



393 



CAST IRON FLANG:^ UNIONS. 

Table of Standard Dimensions. 



Nominal 


External 


Thick- 
ness of 
Metal. 


No. of 

Bolt 

Holes. 


From 


Size 

of 

Bolts. 


Approx. 


Internal 

Diameter 

of Pipe. 


Diameter 

of 
Flange. 


Center to 

Center 

of Holes. 


Weight 
Pair. 




Inches. 


Inches. 




Inches. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 








% 


^h 


1 


3 


314 


% 


5 


1 


4.«e 


1 


3 


31/2 


% 


6 


1^4 


4% 


1 


4 


3^2 


K 


6>2 


11/2 


5^4 


1 


4 


3% 


1/2 


7 


2 


5% 


1 


4 


4y2 


% 


8 


2V2 


6^ 


1 


4 


5 


% 


9 


3 


1'4 


IV4 


5 


53/4 


% 


15 


31/2 


I'A 


IV4 


5 


6 


% 


17 


4 


^'A 


1% 


5 


6% 


% 


23 


41/2 


9 


11/2 


6 


7V2 


% 


26 


5 


9 


11/2 


6 


71/2 


% 


29 


6 


10^ 


IV2 


6 


8^ 


% 


31 


7 


11-K 


11/2 


6 


10 


% 


41 


8 


13 


IV2 


6 


111/8 


% 


48 


9 


14 


IV2 


6 


12 


% 


54 


10 


15 


1V2^ 


7 


123/4 


% 


60 


11 


16 


1% 


7 


14 


% 


75 


12 


17 


1% 


8 


15 


% 


80 


13 


18 


1% 


8 


16 


% 


95 


14 


19 


1% 


8 


171/8 


% 


100 



SAFETY YAJ/Viei CAI,CUI,ATIONS. 

Adopted by U. S. Board of Supervising Inspectors. 

To £nd the weight required to load a given safety-valve to blow off at 
any specihed pressure: 

Rule: 1st. Multiply the pressure in pounds per square inch at which 
the valve is to be set by the area of the valve in square inches. Set this 
product aside and designate it as number one. 

2nd. Multiply the weight of the lever in pounds by the distance in 
inches of its center of gravity from the fulcrum; divide the product by the 
distance in inches from the center of the valve to the fulcrum, and add to 
the quotient the weight of the valve and spindle in pounds. Set the sum 
aside, and designate it as quantity number two. 

3rd. Divide the distance in inches from the center of the valve to the 
fulcrum by the distance, also expressed in inches, from the center of the 
weight to the fulcrum. Set this quantity aside, and designate it as num- 
ber three. 

4th. Subtract quantity number 2 from quantity number 1, and multi- 
ply the difference by number 3. The product will be the required weight 
in pounds. 



394 YALYE. 

Example: What must be the weight at the end of the lever to make 
the blowing off pressure 80 pounds, under following conditions: 

Diameter of valve, 4 inches. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of weight 36 inches. Distance from 
fulcrum to center of valve, 4 inches. 

Weight of lever, 7 pounds. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of gravity of lever, 15i^ inches. 

Weight ofvalve, 3 pounds. 

Area of 4 inch valve = 12.566 square inch. 
80 X 12.566 = 1005.28. 
7 X 15.5 _^ 3 ^ 30.125. 

4 
4 -i- 36 =.111. 

Then (1005.28 — 30.125) X .111 = 108.24 pounds. Ans. 

To £nd the length of the kver, or distance from the fulcrum at which 
a given weight must be set to cause the valve to blow at any speci£ed 
pressure. 

Rule: 

1st. Multiply the area of the valve in square inches by the pressure in 
pounds per square inch at which it is required to blow. Set the product 
aside and designate it "number 1." 

2nd. Multiply the weight of the lever in pounds by the distance in 
inches of its center of gravity from the fulcrum; divide the product by the 
distance in inches from the center of the valve to the fulcrum; add to the 
quotient the weight of the valve and spindle; set the sum aside, and desig- 
nate it "number 2." 

3rd. Divide the distance in inches from the center of valve to fulcrum 
by the weight of the ball in pounds, and call the quotient "number 3." 

4th. Subtract " number 2 " from "number 1," and multiply the differ- 
ence by " number 3; " the product will express the distance in inches that 
the ball must be placed from the fulcrum to produce the required pressure. 

Example: 

How far must the weight be placed from the fulcrum to make the 
bio wing-off pressure 75 pounds, under the following conditions: 

Diameter ofvalve = 4 inches. 

Distance from fulcrum to center ofvalve =4 inches. 

Weight of lever = 7 pounds. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of gravity of lever = 16^ inches. 

Weight ofvalve = 3 pounds. 

Weight of pi = 108.24 pounds. 

Then: 

Area of 4'^ valve = 12.566 square inches. 
75 X 12.566 = 942.45. 
7J< 15.5 ■ 3 ^ 30.125. 

4 -^ 108 24 =.0369. 
Then: 942.45 — 30.125 — 912.325, and 

912.325 X '0369 = 35.66 inches. Ans. 



VALVE. 395 



To find at what pressure a safety-valve will commence to blow when 
the weight and its position on the lever are known. 

Rule: Multiply the weight of the lever by the distance of its center gf 
gravity from the fulcrum; add to this product that obtained by multiply- 
ing the weight of the ball by its distance from the fulcrum; divide the sum 
of these two products by the distance from the center of the valve to the 
fulcrum, and add to the quotient as obtained the weight of the valve and 
spindle. Divide this sum by the area of the valve; the quotient will be the 
required blowing-oif pressure in pounds per square inch. 

Example: 

At what pressure will a safety-valve commence to blow off under the 
following conditions? 

Diameter of valve = 4 inches. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of weight = 36 inches. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of valve =: 4 inches. 

Weight of lever = 7 pounds. 

Distance from fulcrum to center of gravity of lever = 15V^ inches. 

Weight of valve = 3 pounds. 

Weight of pi =108. 24 pounds. 

Then: 

Area of 4 inch valve = 12.566 square inches. 
7 X 15.5 = 108.5. 
36 X 108.24 = 3896.64. 
108.5+ 3896.64 = 4005.14. 

^^^^•^^=1001.285. 

4 
1001.285 + 3 = 1004.285. 
1004.285^ 79.92 pounds pressure. 
12.566 

Ans. 

And where the weight is placed 33.66 inches from fulcrum, we have: 
7 X 15.5=108.5. 
33.66 X 108.24 = 3643.3584. 
108.5+ 3643.3584 = 3751.8584. 

^I51:^5?±_= 937.9646. 

4 
937.9646 + 3 = 940.9646. 

940.9646 ^. OQ , 

=: 74.88 pounds pressure. 

12.566 ^ 

Ans. 

To Find the Proper Area of a Safety- Valve for Any Boiler. 

UNITED STATES STEAMBOAT INSPECTOR'S RULE. 

For a common lever valve. 

Allow one square inch of area of valve for every two square feet of area 
of grate. 

For a spring loaded safety-valve. 

Allow one square inch of area of valve, for every three square feet of 
area of grate. 



396 VALVE. 



Example: A boiler grate is 48 inches wide, and 60 inches long, what 
should be the diameter of its lever safety valve? 

48 X 60 = 2880 sqr. inches. ??^ = 20 sqr. ft. 

144 

Area of safety valve should be 10 sqr. inches. 

^^g^^ =12.7323 +. V'^12.7323 = 3.57 inches nearly. Ans. 

Another method. 
KlO = 3.162 nearly =: side of a square whose area is 10 sqr. in. 
3.162 X 1.128 = 3.57 nearly. 

Note: The side of a square multiplied by 1.128 equals the diameter of 
an equal circle. 

Example: A boiler grate is 48 inches wide and 60 inches long, what 
should be the diameter of its spring loaded safety-valve ? 

2^^=20 sqr. ft. 
144 ^ 

Area of safety-valve should be 6.6666 square inches. 
6.6666 _ g^gg2 + 
.7854 
Square root of 8.4882 = 2.91 + = diameter of valve in inches. 
Or: 

Square root of 6.6666 = 2.58. 2.58 X 1.128 = 2.91 + = diameter 
of valve in inches. 

The following table gives the area of the safety-valve for one square 
foot of grate as applied to boilers used at different pressures: 

PRESSURES PER SQUARE INCH. 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 

I I I I I I I I I I I I 
1.21 0.79 0.58 0.46 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 

(Area of safety-valve corresponding to one square foot of grate). 

Example: Required area of safety-valve in square inches for boiler 

running at 80 lbs. pressure and 30 feet grate surface. 

For 1 foot square from table at 80 lbs 0.25 

Square feet grate surface 30 

Area of valve in square inches 7.50 

To Find the Area of Opening of a Conical Safety Valve, the 
Diameter of Valve in Inches, the I/ift, Depth of Seat and 
Bevel of Valve Being Given. 

Rule. Multiply the diameter of the valve by the lift, and this product 
by the constant number 2.22. Then multiply the square of the lift by the 
constantnumberl.il. Add the two products together and the sum will 
equal the area of the opening of valve in square inches. 

The above rule applies only to valves with a bevel of 45 degrees. 



397 



Example: What is the area of opening of a 3 inch valve, with ^ inch 
Hft, depth of seat % inch, and bevel of valve 45 degrees ? 
3 X .25 = .75 
.75X2.22=1.6650. 
.25 X .25 =.0625. 
.0625 X 1.11 = .069375. 
1.6650 + .069375 = 1.734375. 
Or, 1% square inches, nearly. Ans. 

I<ap on a Slide Valve. 

To find the lap on a Slide Valve. 

Rule: From the length of the stroke of the piston, subtract the length 
of that part of the stroke that is to be made, before steam is cut off. Divide 
the remainder by the length of the stroke of the piston, and extract the 
square root of the quotient. Multiply the square root thus found by one- 
half the length of the stroke of the valve, and from the product take one- 
half the lead (if any) and the remainder will be the amount of lap required. 

Example: Suppose an engine of 48'" stroke, travel of valve 6" (no 
lead) is required to cut off at half stroke, what amount of lap should the 
valve have ? 

Half stroke = 24'^ 

— = .50. v^.50 = .707. 
48 

.707 X 3 = 2.121'^ = amount of lap required. Ans. 

Amount of I/ap Required on the Steam Side of the Valve to 
Cut the Steam off at Any of the Under Noted Parts of the 
Stroke. 



Length of Stroke of 
the Valve in Inches 

3 

^'A 

4 

^A 

5 

5M 

6. 

6>i 

7 



3^ 


-h 


H 


-h 


\ 


Vs 


h 


.86 


.81 


.75 


.68 


.61 


.53 


A4r 


1.01 


.94 


.87 


.80 


.71 


.62 


.50 


1.16 


1.08 


1.00 


.91 


.82 


.71 


.58 


1.30 


1.21 


1.12 


1.03 


.92 


.80 


.65 


1.44 


1.35 


1.25 


1.14 


1.02 


.88 


.72 


1.58 


1.48 


1.37 


1.25 


1.12 


.97 


.79 


1.73 


1 62 


1.50 


1.37 


1.22 


1.06 


.86 


1.88 


1.75 


1.62 


1.48 


1.32 


1.15 


.94 


2.02 


1.89 


1.75 


1.60 


1.43 


1.24 


1.01 



.30 
.35 
.41 
.46 
.51 
.56 
.61 
.66 
.71 



The strength of shafts or bars of iron is, for bending and twisting 
strains, as the cubes of their diameters. Thus, a 2-inch shaft is 8 times as 
strong as a 1-inch shaft, while a 3-inch shaft is 27 times as strong. 



398 



WIRE 



w:eight of on:^ foot in i,:eNGTH of wire, of 

IRON, STl^BI/ OR COPPER. 



Diameters by the Birmingham Gauge for Iron 
Wire, Sheet Iron, and Steel. 


Diameters by Brown «!fc Sharpens Gauge. 




i 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


° bo 




Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


5^^ 


p 








^s 


O 










Ing. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Ins. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


0000 


.454 


.546207 


.551360 


.623913 


0000 


.46000 


.56074 


.566030 


.640513 


000 


.425 


.478656 


.483172 


.546752 


000 


.40964 


.444683 


.448879 


.507946 


00 


.380 


.382660 


.386270 


.437099 


00 


.36480 


.35^659 


.355986 


.402830 





.340 


.306340 


.309230 


.349921 





.32486 


.2796t55 


.282303 


.319451 


1 


.300 


.2.38500 


.240750 


.272430 


1 


.28930 


.221789 


.223891 


.253342 


2 


.284 


.213738 


.215755 


,244146 


2 


.25763 


.175888 


.177548 


.200911 


3 


.259 


.177765 


.179442 


.203054 


3 


.22942 


.139480 


.140796 


.159323 


4 


.238 


.150107 


.151523 


.171461 


4 


.20431 


.110616 


.111660 


.126353 


5 


.220 


.128260 


.129470 


.146507 


5 


.18194 


.087720 


.088548 


.100200 


G 


.203 


.109204 


.110234 


.124740 


6 


.16202 


.069565 


.070221 


.079462 


7 


.180 


.085860 


.086667 


.098075 


7 


.14428 


.055165, 


.055685 


.063013 


8 


.165 


.072146 


.072827 


.082410 


8 


.12849 


.043751 


.044164 


.049976 


9 


.148 


.058046 


.058593 


.066303 


9 


.11443 


.034699 


.035026 


.039636 


10 


.134 


.047583 


.048032 


.054353 


10 


.10189 


.027512 


.027772 


.031426 


11 


.120 


.038160 


.038520 


.043589 


11 


.090742 


.021820 


.022026 


.024924 


12 


.109 


.031485 


.031782 


.035964 


12 


.080808 


.017304 


.017468 


.019766 


13 


.095 


.023916 


.024142 


.027319 


13 


.071961 


.013722 


.013851 


.015674 


14 


.083 


.018256 


.018428 


.020853 


14 


.064084 


.010886 


.010989 


.012435 


15 


.072 


.013738 


.013867 


.015693 


15 


.057068 


.008631 


.008712 


.009859 


16 


.065 


.011196 


.011302 


.012789 


16 


.050860 


.006845 


.006909 


.007819 


17 


.058 


.008915 


.008999 


.010183 


17 


.045257 


.005427 


.005478 


.006199 


18 


.049 


.006363 


.006423 


.007268 


18 


.040303 


.004304 


.004344 


.004916 


19 


.042 


.004675 


.004719 


.005340 


19 


.035890 


.003413 


.003445 


.003899 


20 


.035 


.003246 


.003277 


.003708 


20 


.031961 


.002708 


.002734 


.003094 


21 


.032 


.002714 


.002739 


.003100 


21 


.028462 


.002147 


.002167 


.002452 


22 


.028 


.002078 


.002097 


.002373 


22 


.025347 


.001703 


.001719 


.001945 


23 


.025 


.001656 


.001672 


.001892 


23 


.022571 


.001 a50 


.001363 


.001542 


24 


.022 


.001283 


.001295 


.001465 


24 


.020100 


.001071 


.001081 


.001223 


25 


.020 


.001060 


.001070 


.001211 


25 


.017900 


.0008491 


.0008571 


.0009699 


26 


.018 


.0008586 


.0008687 


.0009807 


26 


.015940 


.0006734 


.0006797 


.0007692 


27 


.016 


.0006784 


.0006848 


.0007749 


27 


.014195 


.0005340 


.0005391 


.0006099 


28 


.014 


.0005194 


.0005243 


.0005933 


28 


.012641 


.0004235 


.0004275 


.0004837 


29 


.013 


,0004479 


.0004521 


.0005116 


29 


.011257 


.0003358 


.0003389 


.0003835 


30 


.012 


.0003816 


.0003852 


.0004359 


30 


.010025 


.0002663 


.0002688 


.0003042 


31 


.010 


.0002650 


.0002675 


.0003027 


31 


.008928 


.0002113 


.0002132 


.0002413 


32 


.009 


.0002147 


.0002167 


.0002452 


32 


.007950 


.0001675 


.0001691 


.0001913 


33 


.008 


.0001696 


.0001712 


.0001937 


33 


.007080 


.0001328 


.0001341 


.0001517 


34 


.007 


.0001299 


.0001311 


.0001483 


34 


.006304 


.0001053 


.0001063 


.0001204 


35 


.005 


.00006625 


.00006688 


.00007568 


35 


00.5614 


.OOOOJ-366 


.00008445 


.0000956 


36 


.004 


.0000424 


.0000428 


.00004843 


36 


.00.5000 


.00< 06625 


.00006687 


.0000757 


Sp. grav 

Wts. of a 


7.77 


7.85 


8.89 


37 


.004453 


.00005255 


.00005304 


.00006003 








38 


.003965 


.00004166 


.00004205 


.000047,58 


cub. foot. . . 


485.* 


490. 


555. 


39 


.003.531 


.00003305 


.00003336 


.00003775 


cub. in 


.2807 


.2836 


.3212 


40 .003144 1 


.00002620 


.00002644 


.00002992 



Hammered copper is heavier than rolled, and rolled heavier than cast 
copper, bulk for bulk. 



The pressure of the cross head gibs on the guides of an engine has the 
same ratio to the pressure on the piston that the length of crank has to the 
length of the connecting rod. 



WIRE. 



399 



TABI^B INDICATING SlZ^y WiEIGHT AND I<BNGTH OF 
IRON AND STE:^!/ WIRE. 



Washburn & Moen's Gauge. 



Gauge 
Numbers. 


Diameter. 
Inch. 


Weight of 
100 feet. 
Pounds. 


Weight of 
One Mile. 
Pounds. 


Feet in 
2,000 Lbs. 


Area. 
Sq. Inch. 


3-0 


.362 


34.73 


1834 


5,759 


.102921 


2-0 


.331 


29.04 


1533 


6,886 


.086049 


1-0 


.307 


25.00 


1318 


8,000 


.074023 


1 


.283 


21.23 


1121 


9,425 


.062901 


2 


.263 


18.34 


968 


10,905 


.054325 


3 


.244 


15.78 


833 


12.674 


.046759 


4 


.225 


13.39 


707 


14,936 


.039760 


5 


.207 


11.35 


599 


17,621 


.033653 


6 


.192 


9.73 


514 


20.555 


.028952 


7 


.177 


8.30 


439 


24.906 


.024605 


8 


.162 


6.96 


367 


28,734 


.020612 


9 


.148 


5.80 


306 


34,483 


.017203 


10 


.135 


4.83 


255 


41,408 


.014313 


11 


.120 


3.82 


202 


52,356 


.011309 


12 


.105 


2.92 


154 


68.493 


.008659 


13 


.092 


2.24 


118 


89.286 


.006647 


14 


.080 


1.69 


89 


118.343 


.005026 


15 


.072 


1.37 


72 


145,985 


.004071 


16 


.063 


1.05 


55 


190,476 


.003117 


17 


.054 


.77 


41 


259,740 


.002290 


18 


.047 


.58 


31 


344,827 


.001734 


19 


.041 


.45 


24 


444,444 


.001320 


20 


.035 


.32 


17 


625,000 


.000962 


21 


.032 


.27 


14 


740,741 


.000804 


22 


.028 


.21 


11 


952,381 


.000615 


23 


.025 


.175 


9.24 




.000491 


24 


.023 


.140 


7.39 




.000415 


25 


.020 


.116 


6.124 




.000314 


26 


.018 


.093 


4.91 




.000254 


27 


.017 


.083 


4.382 




.000227 


28 


.016 


.074 


3.907 




.000201 


29 


.015 


.061 


3.22 




.000176 


30 


.014 


.054 


2.851 




.000154 


31 


.0135 


.050 


2.64 




.000143 


32 


.013 


.046 


2.428 




.000132 


33 


.011 


.037 


1.953 




.000095 


34 


.010 


.030 


1.584 




.000078 


35 


.0095 


.025 


1.32 




.000071 


36 


.009 


.021 


1.161 




.000064 



HOW TO COMPUTE THE CONTENTS OF A HOPPER. 

The following rule for computing the contents of a hopper is simple 
and easy of application, and will be found reliable in practice: 

Multiply the length by the breadth, in inches, and this product by one- 
third of the depth, measuring to the point. Divide the last product by 2,- 
150 (the number of cubic inches in a bushel), and the quotient thus ob- 
tained will be the contents of the hopper in bushels. 



400 



WIRE. 



Weight of Copper and Brass Wire. 

DIAMETERS DETERMINED BY AMERICAN GAUGE ( BROWN & SHARPE). 




WEIGHT OF WIRE PER 1,000 LINEAL FEET. 



0000 

000 

00 



1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 



Incli. 

.46000 
.40964 
.36480 
.32486 
.28930 
.25763 
.22942 
.20431 
.18194 
.16202 
.14428 
.12849 
.11443 
.10189 
.090742 
.080808 
.071961 
.064084 
.057068 
.050820 
.045257 
.040303 
.035890 
.031961 
.028462 
.025347 
.022571 
.020100 
.017900 
.01594 
.014195 
.012641 
011257 
.010025 
.008928 
.007950 
.007080 
.006304 
.005614 
.005000 
.004453 
.003965 
.003531 
.003144 



Wrought 
Iron. 



Lbs. 

560.74 
444 68 
352.66 
279.67 
221.79 
175.89 
139.48 
110.62 
87.720 
69.565 
55.165 
43.751 
34.699 
27.512 
21.820 
17.304 
13.722 
10.886 
8.631 
6.845 
5.427 
4.304 
3.413 
2.708 
2.147 
1.703 
1.350 
1.071 
0.8491 
0.6734 
0.5340 
0.4235 
0.3358 
0.2663 
0.2113 
0.1675 
0.1328 
0.1053 
.08366 
.06625 
.05255 
.04166 
.03305 
.02620 



Steel. 



Copper, 



Brass. 



Specific Gravity 7.7747 

Weight per Cubic Footi 485.874 



Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


566.03 


640.51 


605.18 


448.88 


507.95 


479.91 


355.99 


402.83 


380.67 


282.30 


319.45 


301.82 


223.89 


253.34 


239.35 


177.55 


200.91 


189.82 


140.80 


159.32 


150.52 


111.66 


126.35 


119.38 


88.548 


100.20 


94.666 


70.221 


79.462 


75.075 


55.685 


63.013 


59.545 


44.164 


49.976 


47.219 


35.026 


39.636 


37.437 


27.772 


31.426 


29.687 


22.026 


24.924 


23.549 


17.468 


19.766 


18.676 


13.851 


15.674 


14.809 


10.989 


12.435 


11.746 


8.712 


9.859 


9.315 


6.909 


7.819 


7.587 


5.478 


6.199 


5.857 


4.344 


4.916 


4.645 


3.445 


3.899 


3.684 


2.734 


3.094 


2.920 


2.167 


2.452 


2.317 


1.719 


1.945 


1.838 


1.363 


1.542 


1.457 


1.081 


1.223 


1.155 


0.8571 


.9699 


0.9163 


0.6797 


.7692 


0.7267 


0.5391 


.6099 


0.5763 


0.4275 


.4837 


0.4570 


0.3389 


.3835 


0.3624 


0.2688 


.3042 


0.2874 


0.2132 


.2413 


0. 2280 


0.1691 


.1913 


.1808 


0.1341 


.1517 


.1434 


0.1063 


.1204 


.1137 


.08445 


.0956 


.0915 


.06687 


.0757 


.0715 


.05304 


.06003 


.05671 


.04205 


.04758 


.04496 


.03336 


.03755 


.03566 


.02644 


.02992 


.02827 


7.847 


8.880 


8.386 


90.45 


554.988 


524.16 



WIRE. 



401 



Weight Per Mile of Copper Wire. 



Number. 


Roebling. 


Birmingham. 


Brown & 
Sharpe. 


English 

Legal 

Standard 


0000 


2466 


3286 


3375 


2555 


000 


2092 


2884 


2677 


2210 


00 


1750 


2305 


2123 


1933 





1504 


1846 


1684 


1682 


1 


1278 


1437 


1335 


1437 


2 


1104 


1287 


1058 


1216 


3 


950 


1071 


839 


1012 


4. 


808 


904 


665 


860 


5 


684 


773 


528 


718 


6 


588 


657 


418 


588 


7 


500 


517 


332 


495 


8 


419 


435 


263 


409 


9 


350 


350 


209 


332 


10 


291 


287 


166 


263 


11 


230 


230 


131 


215 


12 


176 


190 


104 


173 


13 


135 


144 


83 


135 


14 


102 


110 


65 


102 


15 


83 


83 


52 


83 


16 


64 


68 


41 


65 


17 


47 


53 M 


33 


50 


18 


35 


38 


26 


37 


19 


27 


28 


20% 


26 


20 


19K 


19>^ 


16Ji 


20% 


21 


16% 


16^ 


13 


16^ 


22 


12^ 


12K 


lOJi 


123^ 


23 


10 ^i 


lOJi 


8M 


9)€ 


24 


8^ 


1% 


6V2 


1% 


25 


6K 


QY^ 


5^ 


6M 


26 


5 


5 


4 


5 


27 


4J^ 


4 


3^ 


4 


28 


4 


3^ 


2V2 


3M 


29 


3^ 


2% 


2 


3 


30 


3J€ 


2% 


1% 


2X 



Hard Copper Telegraph Wire. 



Size b}' Brown & 
Sharp Gauge. 



Resistance in Ohms 
per Alile. 



Breaking Strength. 



Weight per 
Mile. 



9 


4 30 


625 


209 


10 


5.40 


525 


166 


11 


690 


420 


131 


12 


8.70 


330 


104 


13 


10.90 


270 


83 


14 


13.70 


213 


66 


15 


17.40 


170 


52 


16 


22.10 


130 


41 



26 



402 



WIRE 



Iron Telegraph Wire. 

TABLE OF LENGTH, SIZE, WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC. 





II 


^1 


Weight 1 
Mile, Gal- 
vanized. 


Weight 1 
ile, not Gal- 
vanized. 


^1 
.S u 
►^ -t-> 


Length of 

Bundles in 

Feet. 


m^ 


S 


^ 




S 







0.340 


29.44 


1490 


1416 


7280 


213 


1 


0.300 


22.92 


1210 


1150 


5650 


273 


2 


0.280 


19.97 


1054 


1002 


4930 


315 


3 


0.260 


17.22 


909 


854 


4250 


363 


4 


0.240 


11.00 


775 


747 


3620 


429 


5 


0.220 


12.34 


651 


619 


3040 


510 


6 


0.200 


10.19 


538 


512 


2510 


609 


7 


0.185 


8.72 


461 


438 


2220 


717 


8* 


0.170 


7.37 


389 


370 


1840 


858 


9* 


0.155 


6.12 


323 


307 


1560 


1026 


10* 


0.140 


4.99 


264 


251 


1280 


1260 


11* 


0.125 


3.98 


211 


200 


1000 


1587 


12 


0.110 


3.08 


163 


157 


800 


2100 


13 


0.095 


2.35 


124 


118 


568 


2679 


14 


0.085 


1.84 


97 


93 


456 


3426 


15 


0.075 


1.43 


76 


73 


352 


4404 


16 


0.065 


1.08 


57 


55 


264 


5862 


17 


0.057 


0.83 


44 


42 


208 


7620 


18 


0.050 


0.64 


34 


32 


160 


9450 


19 


0.045 


0.52 


27 


26 


128 


12255 


20 


0.040 


0.41 


21 


20 


104 


14736 



* Those marked witli star are standard sizes for telegraph use. 
Galvanized Telegraph and Telephone Wire. 

TABLE OF SIZES AND WEIGHTS. 

No. 4 wire, in V^-mile bdls., 730 lbs. per mile. 



6 " 


" Vb " 


'• 540 


8 " 


" 1/2 " 


' 380 


9 " 


" 1/2 " 


' 320 


10 " 


" V2 " 


' 260 


11 " 


" V2 '•' 


' 214 


12 " 


'' V2 " 


' 165 


14 " 


" 1/2 " 


96 



A running balance, and a standing balance, are different things. 

In counterbalancing a steam engine it can be only balanced for one di- 
rection, and practice demonstrates that it is not possible to determine the 
weight that will give the best results in any other way than by actual 
trial. 



WIRE. 



403 



WASHBURN & MOBN'S GAUGB. 

Coiled Wire for Making Needles. 



W. G. 


Diameter 
Inch. 


W. G. 


Diameter 
Inch. 


W. G. 


Diameter 
Inch. 


No. 




No. 




No. 




6 


.192 




.076 




.053 


7 


.177 




.075 




.052 


8 


.162 




.073 




.050 


9 


.148 


15 


.072 


18 


.047 


10 


.135 




.071 




.046 


11 


.120 




.069 




.043 




.118 




.065 


19 


.041 




.115 




.064 




.036 


12 


.105 


16 


.063 


20 


.035 


13 


.092 




.062 


21 


.032 




.081 




.057 


22 


.028 




.0805 




.056 


23 


.025 


14 


.080 




.055 


24 


.023 




.079 


17 


.054 


25 


.020 



For very exact work, it is best to order both Drill Rods and Needle 
Wire in thousandths of an inch. 

Si^es of American Wire Expressed in Fractions of an Inch. 

(approximate.) 



No. 00000 if 

" 0000 H 

000 p 

00 U 

" 1 (small) 3®^ 

2 hi 

3(full) J€ 

5 a 

6 (small) i^e 



No. 8 (small) -g^ 

" lOM H 

" 13 ^ 

" 14 (small) 6^ 

" 16 (full) J 

" 18 (full) e\ 

" 20K Jj 

"28 ^ 

" 36 ,ig 



Yards of Iron Wire to Bundle. 



Wire 
Gauge. 


Yards in 
Bundle. 


No. 


71 


" 1 


91 


" 2 


105 


" 3 


121 


" 4 


143 


•* 5 


170 


" 6 


203 



Wire 
Guage. 



Yards in 
Bundle. 



No. 7 


239 


" 8 


...286 


" 9 

" 10 


342 

420 


" 11 


529 


" 12 


700 


" 13 


893 



Wire Yards in 

Gauge. Bundle. 

No. 14 1142 

" 15 1468 

" 16 1954 

" 17 2540 

•' 18 3150 

•* 19 4085 

" 20 4912 



All Wires 63 lbs. per bundle. 



404 



WIRE. 








s 




a> 


tn 


H 


W 


^ 
^ w 


ri 


^ -in 


5 


.ti-S 


< 


•2 -Si 


H 


^ rt 




pa ^ 


g 


2 § 


H 


G »-i 


^ 


o ^ 




G ^+H 


CO 


32 


& 




p 




M 


i1^ 


H 


a^ 


M 


'O 




>• 




nS 




Q 




V- 




§ 




>^ 




^ 




G 




<u 




> 








C 




CO 




^ 




^ 




rt 




H 




be 




G 








^ 




O 












o 




tl. 



-G 


CO 










1 


G 

t— 1 


^ 




h4 


CO 05H H 


?^ 


13 


lO CO iH J> 




^ 


00 lO r-( CO 


3 


13 


OO'^TfJcO 


eg- 


4> 
G 
G 


lO CO lO lO 


i3 


-< 














CO 






<u 


CO 




4-1 


^ 


lO 05 tH O 


^ 


)-} 


rHrHTi^O 




. 


lO rH r-t 05 


'H 


oJ^'oid 




rt 


10 10 CO oi 


3 


W 


r-t r-l r-l T-( 


PLH 






n 




T- 


M 


o: 


-^ 




- 


J 


d 6 d 6 




rx 

u 


y.^'z,^ 


^ 


H 


9J 




£ 


N 






G - - - 




J 


o" ■* - 






V- 




m 




J 


^ 




-^ 


o 


6 


G* 


CO 




,g' 


CO 




CJ 

G 


h4 


C^ O t}< t^ 


?^ 


ts 


O lO O O) CO 




^ 


q iq CD c^j CO 


G 


15 


l> rH CO 1-- Tfi 


73 


9> 

G 


CO lO -* CO i> 




-< 




0^ 






CO 














CO 




u. 


^ 


CJ CO tJ* r-l CO 


bo 


h^ 


CI 10 CO c^n- 




rH T-J X CO 05 


'S 


CO rH lO lO d 




rt 


CO X CO CO c^ 


'5 


w 


lH 


P- 




_____ _ 1 


n 


3 














u 




























A 














U 












t 
















JO 




























J 






c 






H 






o 












u, 






-) 










^ 






^ G • 
c^ : 


6 





^? 


s^J 






d,^ d^ v\ 






o S^ oiil 






O 


PC 


a 


a 


(/)\ 



^^ 


'd 










1 


.2-G 

|5 




COOCOtJ< 


G 


CO CD 10 OJ 


^^ 


G 




i.s 


<3 




-l-» 






g 


'H 


CO 00 CO 


a 


CS 


CO id i> CO 




tn 


rH rHi-lr-l 


a 






G 






_o 


^3 










'5 


13 


CDXOi-Tf^ 


C 


w 


CD C^tJI Ci 




G 


Tj^TfiTjtTfl 


W 


<l^ 




'd 




rH C^ico" Tf 






6 6 6 6 






i?;^;?:??; 




oJ^ 


CO 

G 




N 


B 




m 


'^ 




V4 






o 
,a , , ^ 




a- - - 






CO 













rj 












Ph 


i2 CO 






.52^ 


a; 




II 


15 


CD t* t- -^ 05 


w 
p 


05 10 00 '"^ t- 


d^ 


5 




I^.S 


•^ 




-p 






s 




00 t^ 


u 


CO ^' 00 CO * 




W 


X rH -* OJ 


a 






G 






O 


p 






'^ 


r-l to 05 


<U 


<u 


rj3 CD X t^ d 




G 


CO CO 0» r-l rH 


W 


< 




TJ 














u 














4-> 














CO 














<U 














H 














M 














rj 














(U 








G 




s 








2 




"o 








^ G i 


a 








15 2 i 


m 










a 


w 


a 


a 


*' 



,G 
,bjj 
*53 



405 



Approximate Weight, per Thousand Feet, of Copper Braided 
Blectric Idght Line Wire. 

BROWN & SHARPE'S GAUGE. 





Under- 


Weather 




Under- 


Weather 


No. 


writers' 


Proof 


No. 


writers' 


Proof 




Insulation. 


Insulation. 




Insulation. 


Insulation. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


00 


450 


425 


10 


50 


45 





350 


330 


11 


40 


35 


1 


290 


270 


12 


28V2 


25 


2 


240 


204 


13 


24 


21 


3 


195 


177 


14 


21 


18 . 


4 


155 


140 


15 


17 


15 


5 


125 


110 


16 


13 


13 


6 


105 


95 


17 


12 


12 


7 


81 


73 


18 


10 


10 


8 


73 


65 


19 


9 


9 


9 


55 


49 


20 


8V2 


8K 



CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS WOODS. 

The following is a general statement of the commercial value and prop- 
erties of the better known woods: 

Elasticity. — Ash, hickory, hazel, lancewood, chestnut (small), yew, 
snakewood. 

Elasticity and toughness — Oak, beech, elm, lignum-vitce, walnut, horn- 
beam. 

Even grain (for carving and engraving). — Pear, pine, box, lime tree. 

Durability (in drj^ works). — Cedar, oak, poplar, j^ellow pine, chestnut. 

Building (ship building). — Cedar, pine (deal), fir, larch, elm, oak, locust, 
teak. Wet construction (as piles, foundations, flumes, etc. — Elm, alder, 
beech, oak, plane tree, white cedar. — House building. — Pine, oak, white- 
wood, chestnut, ash, spruce, S3^camore, 

Machinery and millwork (frames). — Ash, beech, pine, elm, oak. 
Rollers, etc. — Box, lignum-vitae, mahogany. Teeth of wheels — Crab tree, 
hornbeam, locust. Foundry patterns. — Alder, pine, mahogany. 

Furniture (common). — Beech, birch, cedar, cherry, pine, whitewood. 
Best furniture. — Amboyna, black ebony, mahogany, cherry, maple, walnut, 
oak, rosewood, satinwood, sandalwood, chestnut, cedar, tulip wood, zebra 
wood, ebony. 

Of these varieties, those that chiefly enter into commerce in this coun- 
try are oak, hickory, ash, elm, cedar, black walnut, maple, cherry, butter- 
nut, etc. 



The temperature of the water in a steam boiler is the same as that of 
the steam generated from it. 



Number, Diameter, Weight, J^etigth. and Resistance of Pure 

Copper Wire. 



BROWN & SHARPE'S GAUGE. 





DiAM. 


Wei 


GHT. 


Length. 


Resistance of Pure Copper at 


6 

J5 




SP. GR. ■ 


-8.889 






70<' Fahr. 


Inches. 


Grs. per 
Foot. 


Lbs. per 
1000 Ft. 


Feet 
per lb. 


Ohms per 
1000 Feet. 


Feet per 
Ohm. 


Ohms per lb. 


0000 


.460 


4475.33 


6.39.33 


1.56 


.051 


19605.69 


.0000798 


000 


.40964 


3549.07 


507.01 


1.97 


.064 


15547.87 


.000127 


00 


.36480 


2814.62 


402.09 


2.49 


.081 


12330.36 


.0002i>2 





.32495 


2233.28 


319.04 


3.13 


.102 


9783.63 


.0003120 


1 


.28930 


1770.13 


252.88 


3.95 


.129 


7754.66 


.00051 


2 


.25763 


1403.79 


200.54 


4.99 


.163 


6149.78 


.000811 


3 


.22942 


1113.20 


159.03 


6.29 


.205 


4876.73 


.001^89 
.00305 


4 


.20431 


882.85 


126.12 


7.93 


.259 


3867.62 


5 


.18194 


700.10 


100.01 


10.00 


.326 


3067.06 


.00326 


6 


.16202 


555.20 


79.32 


12.61 


.411 


2432.22 


.00518 


7 


.14428 


440.27 


62.90 


15.90 


.519 


1928.75 


.008^4 
.01311 


8 


.12849 


349.18 


49.88 


20.05 


.654 


1529.69 


9 


.11443 


276.94 


39.56 


25.28 


.824 


1213.22 


.02083 


10 


.10189 


219.57 


31.37 


31.88 


1.040 


961.91 


.03314 


11 


.09074 


174.15 


24.88 


; 40.20 


1.311 


762.93 


.05209 


12 


.08081 


138.11 


19.73 


50.69 


1.653 


605.03 


.08377 


13 


.07196 


109.52 


15.65 


63.91 


2.084 


479.80 


.13321 


14 


06408 


86.86 


12.41 


80.59 


2.628 


380.51 


.2118 


15 


.05706 


68.88 


9.84 


101.63 


3.314 


301.75 


.3368 


16 


.05082 


54.63 


7.81 


128.14 


4.179 


239.32 


.5355 


17 


.04525 


43.32 


6.19 


161.59 


5.269 


189.78 


.8515 


18 


.04030 


34.35 


4.91 


203.76 


6.645 


150.50 


1.3539 


19 


.03589 


26.49 


3.78 


264.26 


8.617 


116.05 


2.2772 


20 


.03196 


21.61 


3.09 


324.00 


10.566 


94.65 


3.423 


21 


.02846 


17.13 


2.45 


408.56 


13.323 


75.06 


5.443 


22 


.025347 


13.59 


1.94 


515.15 


16.799 


59.53 


8.654 


23 


.022571 


10.77 


1.54 


649.66 


21.185 


47.20 


13.763 


24 


.0201 


8.54 


1.22 


819.21 


26.713 


37.43 


21.885 


25 


.0179 


6.78 


.97 


1032.96 


33.684 


29.69 


34.795 


26 


.01594 


5.37 


.77 


1302.61 


42.477 


23.54 


55.331 


27 


.014195 


4.26 


.61 


1642.55 


53.563 


18.68 


87.979 


28 


.012641 


3.38 


.48 


2071.22 


67.542 


14.81 


139.893 


29 


.011257 


2.68 


.38 


2611.82 


85.170 


11.47 


222.449 


30 


.010025 


2.13 


.30 


3293.97 


107.391 


9.31 


353.742 


31 


.008928 


1.69 


.24 


4152.22 


135.402 


7.39 


562.221 


32 


.00795 


1.34 


.19 


5236.66 


170.765 


5.86 


894.242 


33 


.00708 


1.06 


.15 


6602.71 


215.312 


4.64 


1421.646 


34 


.0063 


.84 


.12 


8328.30 


271.583 


3.68 


2261.82 


35 


.00561 


.67 


.10 


10501.35 


342.443 


2.92 


3596.104 


36 


.005 


.53 


.08 


13238.83 


431.712 


2.32 


5715.36 


37 


.00445 


.42 


.06 


16691.06 


544.287 


1.84 


9084.71 


38 


.003965 


.34 


.05 


20854.65 


686.511 


1.46 


14320.26 


39 


.003531 


.27 


.04 


26302.23 


865.046 


1.16 


22752.6 


40 


.003144 


.21 


.03 


33175.94 


1091.865 


.92 


36223 59 



A cement composed of one-fourth of iron bi-hydrogen, and three- 
fourths of red lead, or white lead, will make wrought iron steam pij^e 
joints perfectly tight. 



WASHERS. 



407 



AVI^RAGB NUMBER OF WASHERS IN A BOX OR KEG 
OF 150 I,BS. OF STANDARD SI2JES. 



Diameter. 


Size of Hole. 


Thickness 
Wire Gauge 
. Number. 


Size ot Bolt. 


Number in 
150 Lbs. 


Vi 


Va. 


18 


h 


80,000 


% 


h 


16 


% 


34,285 


% 


h 


16 


Ji 


22,000 


% 


% 


16 


r=6 


18,500 


1 


h 


14 


% 


10,550 


IV4 


y^ 


14 


h 


7,500 


1% 


h 


12 


% 


4.500 


IV2 


% 


12 


h 


3,850 


1% 


\\ 


10 


% 


2,500 


2 




10 


% 


1,600 


21/4 


}| 


9 


% 


1,300 


2V2 


iiV 


9 


1 


950 


2% 


\y^ 


9 


1^ 


700 


3 


\% 


9 


IM 


550 


3V2 


IK 


9 


1% 


450 



Standard Tyist of Wrought Iron Washers. 



Width. 


Holes. Thi 


:kness. 


Size of Bolt. 


h 


li N 


0. 18 


h 


% 


i'e 


' 16 


'4 


% 


% 


• 16 


16 




l^. 


' 14 




IH 


y 


' 14 


h 


1% 


i% 


' 12 


K 


IK 


% 


' 12 


i% 


IH 


n 


' 10 


% 


2 


\i 


' 10 


% 


2H 


1.5 " 

lis 


' 9 


% 


2K 


lA 


' 9 




2H 


Wa 


' 9 


IH 


3 


1% 


' 9 


IH 


3H 


IK 


* 8 


1% 


3K 


1% 


* 8 


IK 


3% 


1% 


' 8 


1% 


4 


1% 


' 8 


1% 


41-i 


2 ! 


' 8 


1% 


4K 


2K ■ i 


' « 


2 



One or two quarts of crude petroleum introduced into a boiler will re- 
move the scale. Use the boiler exactly as if no oil were present. One quart 
would be about sufficient for a 50-horse power boiler. 



408 



WIND — WATER. 



Velocity and Force of the Wind. 



Description. 



Hardly perceptible. 
Just perceptible 

Gentle breeze 

Pleasant breeze 

Brisk gale 

High wind 






'W 



^ 



Very high wind. 

Storm 

Great storm 



Hurricane. 



1 

2 

3 

4. 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 






88 

176 

264 

352 

440 

880 

1320 

1760 

2200 

2640 

3080 

3520 

3960 

4400 

5280 

6160 

7040 

8800 



a . 



1.47 
2.93 
4.40 
5.87 
7.33 
14.67 
22.0 
29.3 
36.6 
44.0 
51.3 
58.6 
66.0 
73.3 
88.0 
102.7 
117.3 
146.6 



.005 

.020 

.044 

.079 

.123 

.492 

1 107 

1.968 

3.075 

4.428 

6.027 

7.872 

9.963 

12.300 

17.712 

24.108 

31.488 

49.200 



WAXIER. 

A U. S. standard gallon holds 231 cubic inches, and 83^ pounds of 
water at 62 deg. Fahr. 

A British imperial gallon holds 277.274 cubic inches, and 10 pounds of 
water at 62 deg. Fahr. 

Sea water (average) has a specific gravity of 1.028, boils at 213.2 de- 
grees Fahr., and weighs 64 pounds per cubic foot at 62 deg. Fahr. 

A British thermal unit is that quantity of heat which will raise one 
pound of water at the freezing point, one degree Fahr. 

According to B. F. Sturtevant, a column of water 27 iVo^o inches in height 
will give a pressure of one pound to the square inch. 

Water at Different Temperatures. 

Freezing point at sea level 32 deg. Fahr. 

Point of maximum density 39 1 " |^ 

British standard for specific gravity 62 " 

Boiling point at sea level ••• 212 



Weight per cu. ft. at 32 deg. Fahr. 

39.1 '• 

62 " 

212 " 

Weight per cu. in at 32 " 

39.1 " 

62 " 

212 " 



62.418 lbs 

62.425 

62.355 

59.760 

.03612 

.036125 

.03608 

.03458 



Boiling Point of Water. 

Barometer at 31 inches 213.57° 

*« 29 " 210.38° 

«« 28 " 208.69° 

(c << 27 " 206.85° 

;*:;■;;''.■..; 88° 



m vacuo. 



WATER. 



409 



PRESSURE OF WATER. 

The pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every foot in height 
to 300 feet; and then by intervals, to 1000 feet head. By this table, from 
the pounds pressure per square inch, the feet head is readily obtained; and 
vice versa. 



Feet 


Pressure 


I Feet 


Pressure 


Feet 


Pressure 


1 Feet 


Pressure 


Feet 


Pressure 


Head 


per square 
inch. 


Head 

1 


per square 
inch. 


Head 
129 


per square 
inch, 

55.88 


I Head 


per square 
inch. 


Head 
2.57 


per square 
inch. 


1 


0.43 


65 


28.1.5 


193 


83,60 


111.32 


2 


0.86 


66 


28.58 


130 


56.31 


194 


84.03 


258 


111.76 


3 


1.30 


67 


29.02 


131 


56.74 


195 


84.47 


259 


112.19 


4 


1.73 


68 


29.45 


132 


57.18 


196 


84,90 


260 


112.62 


5 


2.16 


69 


29.88 


133 


57.61 


197 


85.a3 


261 


113.06 


6 


2.59 


70 


30.32 


134 


58.04 


198 


85.76 


262 


113.49 


7 


3.03 


71 


30.75 


135 


58.48 


199 


86.20 


263 


lia92 


8 


3.46 


72 


31.18 


136 


58.91 


200 


86.63 


264 


114.36 


9 


3.89 


73 


31.62 


137 


59.34 


201 


87.07 


265 


114.79 


10 


4.33 


74 


32.05 


138 


59.77 


202 


87.50 


266 


11.5.22 


11 


4.76 


75 


32.48 


139 


60.21 


203 


87,93 


267 


115.66 


12 


5.20 


76 


32.92 


140 


60.64 


1 204 


88 36 


268 


116.09 


13 


5.63 


77 


33.35 


141 


61.07 


1 205 


88.80 


269 


116.52 


14 


6.06 


78 


33.78 


142 


61.51 


206 


89.23 


270 


116.96 


15 


6.49 


79 


34.21 


143 


61.94 


207 


89,66 


271 


117.39 


16 


6.93 


80 


34.65 


144 


62. .37 


208 


90.10 


272 


117.82 


17 


7.36 


81 


35.08 


145 


62.81 


: 209 


90.53 


273 


118.26 


18 


7.79 


82 


35.52 


' 146 


63.24 


i 210 


90.96 


274 


118.69 


19 


8.22 


83 


35.95 


1 147 


63.67 


211 


91.39 


275 


119.12 


20 


8.66 


84 


36.39 


148 


64.10 


1 212 


91.83 


276 


119..56 


21 


9.09 


85 


36.82 


149 


64.54 


213 


92.26 


277 


119.99 


22 


9.53 


86 


37.25 


: 150 


64.97 


214 


92.69 


278 


120.42 


23 


9.96 


87 


37.68 


i 151 


65.40 


215 


93.13 


279 


120.85 


24 


10.39 


88 


38.12 


152 


65.84 


216 


93.56 


280 


121.29 


25 


10.82 


89 


38.55 


153 


66.27 


217 


93.99 


281 


121.72 


26 


11.26 


90 


38.98 


154 


66.70 


218 


94.43 


282 


122.15 


27 


11.69 


91 


39.42 


; 155 


67.14 


219 


94.86 


283 


122.59 


28 


12.12 


92 


39.85 


156 


67..57 


220 


95.30 


284 


123.02 


29 


12.55 


93 


40.28 


157 


68.00 


221 


95.73 


285 


123.45 


30 
31 


12.99 


94 


40.72 


158 


68.43 


222 


96.16 


286 


123.89 


13.42 


95 


41.15 


159 


68.87 


223 


96.60 


287 


124.32 


32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
87 


13.86 


96 


41.58 


160 


69.31 


224 


97.03 


288 


124.75 


14.29 


' 97 


42.01 


161 


69.74 


225 


97.46 


289 


12.5. 18 


14.72 


98 


42.45 


162 


70.17 


226 


97.90 


290 


125.62 


1.5. 16 


99 


42.88 


163 


70.61 


227 


98.33 


291 


126.05 


15.59 


, 100 


43.31 


1 164 


71.04 


228 


98.76 


292 


126.48 


16.02 


101 


43.75 


' 165 


71.47 1 


229 


99.20 


293 


126.92 


38 


16.45 


102 


44.18 


166 


71.91 


230 ; 


99.63 


294 


127.a5 


39 


16.89 


103 


44.61 


167 


72.34 


231 1 


100.06 


295 


127.78 


40 
41 


17.32 


104 


45.05 


168 


72.77 


232 ! 


100.49 


296 


128.22 


17.75 


105 


45.48 


169 


73.20 


233 1 


100.93 


297 


128.65 


42 

43 


18.19 


106 


45.91 


170 


73.64 


234 


101.36 


298 


129.08 


18.62 


107 


46.34 


171 


74.07 


23b 


101.79 


299 


129.51 


44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 


19.05 


108 


46.78 


172 


74.50 


236 ' 


102.23 


300 


129.95 


19.49 


109 


47.21 


173 


74.94 i 


237 i 


102.66 


310 


134.28 


19.92 


110 


47.64 


174 


75.37 


238 


103.09 


320 


138.62 


20.35 1 


111 


48.08 


175 


75.80 


239 


103.53 


330 


142.95 


20,79 1 


112 


48.51 


176 


76.23 


240 1 


103.96 


340 


147.28 


21.22 I 


113 


48.94 


177 


76.67 


241 1 


104.39 


350 


151.61 


21.65 1 


114 


49. .38 


178 


77.10 


242 1 


104,83 


360 


155.94 


22.09 1 


115 


49.81 


179 


77.53 


243 


105.26 


370 


160.27 


22.52 i 


116 


50.24 


180 1 


77.97 


244 


105.69 


380 


164.61 


22.95 


117 


50.68 1 


181 


78.40 


245 


106.13 


390 


168.94 


23.39 


118 


51.11 


182 


78.84 


246 


106.56 


400 


173.27 


23.82 


119 


51.54 


las 


79.27 


247 


106.99 


500 


216.58 


24.26 


120 


51.98 


184 


79.70 


248 i 


107.43 


600 


259.90 


24.69 


121 


52.41 


185 


80.14 1 


249 1 


107.86 


700 


303,22 


25.12 


122 


52.84 


186 


80.57 


250 1 


108.29 


800 


346.54 


25.55 


123 


53.28 


187 ! 


81.00 1 


251 ! 


108.73 


900 


389.86 


25.99 


124 


53.71 


188 i 


81.43 1 


252 1 


109.16 


1000 


433,18 


26.42 


125 


54.15 ! 


189 1 


81.87 1 


253 ! 


109.59 






26. a"? 

27.29 ( 


126 


54. .58 i 


190 


82.30 


254 


110.03 






127 


55.01 


191 


82.73 


255 ! 


110.46 






27.72 


128 


55.44 


192 


83.17 


256 ! 


110.89 







410 



WALLS — WOOD. 



To Find the Horse Power of Water Flowing in Streams. 

Rule: Multiply the velocity of the current in feet per minute, by the 
cross-section area of the stream of water in square feet, and this product 
by 62.3. Divide the result thus obtained by 33,000, and the quotient will 
be the horse power. 

Strength of Biick Walls. 

For first-class buildings with good workmanship, the general average 
should not exceed a greater number of feet in height than three times the 
thickness of the wall in inches, and the length not to exceed double the 
height, without lateral supports of walls, buttresses, etc., as follows, for 
safety: 



Thickness. 



Safe Height. 



Length. 



81^ inch walls. 
13 " " . 

17 " " . 
22 " " . 

26 " " . 



25 feet 
40 " 
55 " 
66 " 

78 " 



50 feet 

80 " 

110 •♦ 

130 " 

150 " 



Relative Hardness of Wood. 

Hickory ,.. 100 

Pignut Hickory 96 

White oak 84 

White ash .. 77 

Dogwood 75 

Scrub oak 73 

White hazel 72 

Apple tree 70 

Red oak 69 

White beech 65 

Black walnut 65 

Black birch 62 

Yellow and black oak 60 

Hard maple 56 

White elm 58 

Red cedar 56 

Cherry 55 

Yellow pine 54 

Chestnut .,... 52 

Yellow poplar 51 

Butternut 43 

White birch 43 

White pine 35 



DRIVING WH^BI/S. 

Number of Revolutions per Mile. 



Diameter of wheel.... 
Revolutions per mile 

Diameter of wheel.... 
Revolutions per mile 



2 ft. 
840 

51/2 ft. 
3051/2 



21/2 ft. 
672 

6 ft. 

280 



3 ft. 
560 

61/2 ft. 

258V2 



31/2 ft. 

480 

7 ft. 
240 



4 ft. 
420 

8 ft. 
210 



41/2 ft. 
373 

9 ft. 

187 



5 ft. 
336 

10 ft. 
168 



WHEELS. 



411 



BUFFAlvO EXHAUST DISK WHE^I/S. 

Showing Cubic Feet of Air Removed by Exhaust Wheel per 

Minute. 



NUMBER OF 


AMOUNT OP AIR THROWN IN CUBIC FEET PER MINUTE. 


REVOLUTIONS Of 
WHKEL PER MINUTE. 


24 Inch. 


30 Inch. 


36 Inch. 


42 Inch. 


48 Inch. 


54 Inch. 


60 Inch. 


72 Inch. 


100 






1 


4,245 
4,676 
5,100 
5,530 
5,965 
6,405 
6,851 
7,302 
7,758 
8,219 
8,686 
9,158 
9,635 
10,117 
10,605 
11,098 
11,596 
12,099 
12,609 
13,122 
13,641 
14.165 
14,695 
15,230 
15,770 
16,315 
16,865 
17,421 
17,982 
18,508 
19,119 
19,696 
20.278 
20,865 
21,457 
22,055 
22,658 
23,268 
23,884 
24,503 
25 127 
25.755 
26,390 
27,030 
27,675 
28,.325 
28,980 
29,640 
30,283 
30,909 
31,518 
32,110 
32,685 
33,243 
33.784 
34,310 
34,836 
35.362 
35,888 
36,414 
36,940 


6,059 
6,665 
7,278 
7,897 
8,522 
9,154 
9,792 
10,437 
11,008 
11,746 
12,410 
13,088 
13,764 
14,447 
15,136 
15,822 
16,534 
17,243 
17,958 
18,680 
19,408 
20,143 
20,884 
21,632 
22,386 
23,147 
23,914 
24,688 
2.5.468 
26,255 
27,048 
27,748 
28,654 
29,467 
30,286 
31,112 
31,944 
32,783 
33,628 
34.480 
35.338 
36,203 
37,074 
37,952 
38,836 
39,727 
40,624 
41,528 
42,438 
43,355 
44,277 
45,208 
46,144 
47,087 
48,036 
48.992 
49,954 
50,923 
51,898 
52,880 
53,858 


8,387 
9,2.58 
10,137 
11,024 
11,919 
12,822 
13,733 
14,652 
15,579 
16,514 
17,457 
18,407 
19,367 
20,334 
21,309 
22,292 
23,283 
24,282 
25.289 
26,304 
27,327 
28,358 
29,397 
30,444 
31,499 
32,565 
33,633 
34,712 
35.799 
36,894 
37,997 
39,108 
40,227 
41,3.54 
42,489 
43,632 
44,783 
45,942 
47.109 
48,284 
49,467 
50,640 
51,795 
52,632 
54.051 
55,152 
56,235 
57.300 
58.347 
59,376 
60,401 


14,936 


110 













16,506 


120 









18,000 


130 









19,688 


140 










21,300 


150 










22,926 


160 










24,566 


170 










26,220 


180. 

190 








5,038 
5,321 

5,607 

5,896 

6,188 

6,482 

6,779 

7,0/9 

7,382 

7,688 

7,906 

8,307 

8,621 

8,938 

9,258 

9,580 

9,905 

10,233 

10.564 

10,898 

11,234 

11,573 

11,915 

12,260 

12,608 

12,958 

1.3,311 

13,967 

14,026 

14,388 

14,752 

15,119 

15,489 

15,862 

16,238 

16,616 

16,997 

17,381 

17.768 

18.158 

18,550 

18,945 

19,345 

19,744 

20,148 

20,554 

20,963 

21,375 

21,790 

22.202 

22,611 

23,017 

23,420 


27,880 






29.570 


200 






3,594 

3,779 

3,966 

4,155 

4,347 

4,541 

4,738 

4.937 

5,139 

5,343 

5,550 

5,759 

5,971 

6,185 

6,402 

6,621 

6,843 

7.067 

7,294 

7,523 

7,755 

7,989 

8,221 

8,464 

8,706 

8,950 

9,197 

9,446 

9,699 

9,953 

10,210 

10,470 

10,632 

10,897 

11,162 

11,430 

11,702 

11,976 

12,254 

12,534 

12,816 

13,101 

13.388 

13.678 

13,970 

14,265 

14.562 

14,862 

15,164 

15.469 

15,776 


31,267 


210 






32,976 


220 




2,341 
2,457 
2,.575 
2,696 
2,819 
2,945 
3,074 
3,205 
3,338 
3,474 
3,612 
3,753 
3,896 
4,042 
4,190 
4,344 
4.494 
4,650 
4,808 
4.969 
5;i32 
5,298 
5,466 
.5,636 
5,808 
5,982 
6,158 
6,336 
6,516 
6,698 
6,882 
7,068 
7,256 
7,446 
7,638 
7,832 
8,028 
8,226 
8,426 
8,628 
8,832 
9,038 
9,246 
9,456 
9,668 
9,882 
10,098 
10,316 
10,536 


34,700 


230 

240 




36,438 
38,190 


250. . 


1,307 
1,444 
1,502 
1,561 
1,622 
1,684 
1,747 
1,812 
1,878 
1,945 
2,014 
2.083 
2,154 
2,227 
2,300 
2,375 
2,452 
2,529 
2,608 
2,688- 
2,770 
2,853 
2,937 
3,022 
3,109 
3,197 
3,286 
3,376 
3,468 
3,561 
3,656 
3,752 
3.849 
3,947 
4,047 
4,148 
4,250 
4,354 
4,459 
4,565 
4,671 
4,779 
4,888 
4,998 
5,109 
5.221 


39,956 


260 


41,736 


270 


43,530 


280 


45,338 


290 


47,160 


300 


48.996 


310 


50,846 


320 


52,710 


330 


54,588 


340 

a50 


56,480 
58.386 


360 


60,306 
62,240 
64,180 
66 103 


370 


380 

390 


400 . . 


67,985 
69 834 


410 


420 ... .. . 


71,650 
73,433 
75,183 
76,900 
78,584 
80,235 
81,8.53 


430 


440 


450 

460 

470 

480 . 


490 

500 


510 . 




520 

530 . . 




540 




550 




560 .. 




570. 




580 




590 

600 

610 




620 




630. 




640 




650 


........ 


660 

670 

f 80 




690 




TOO 









The air we breathe consists of ox\^gen and nitrogen in the relative bulks 
of 20.90 of the former, to 79.10 of the latter; or by weight 23.10 of oxygen 
to 70.90 of nitrogen. 



412 



WHEELS. 



Table of Capacity of I^arge Fan Wheels. 









CUBIC FEET OF AIR. 


HORSE 


POWER. 


Diam. of 


Pressure 
of Blast. 


Revolu- 
tions. 










Wheel. 
















Narrow. 


Wide. 


Narrow. 


Wide. 




J^oz. 


137 


1 2058 


15503 


1.23 


1.58 


6 Feet 


V2 " 


193 


17068 


21945 


3.49 


4.48 


% " 


237 


20915 


27091 


5.60 


7.33 




1 •' 


273 


24144 


31043 


9.87 


12.70 




1/4 OZ. 


117 


15718 


21102 


1.61 


2.15 


7 Feet 


1/2 " 


166 


22250 


29870 


4.55 


6.10 


% " 


203 


27264 


36601 


7.44 


9.98 




1 " 


235 


31474 


42253 


12.74 


17.28 




%OZ. 


102 


20671 


27561 


2.11 


2.82 


8 Feet 


1/2 " 


145 


29260 


39014 


5.98 


7.97 


% " 


177 


35854 


47806 


9.77 


13.03 




1 " 


205 


41391 


55188 


16.93 


22.57 




1/4 OZ. 


91 


25839 


34883 


2.64 


3.57 


9 Feet 


1/2 " 


128 


36576 


49377 


7.38 


10.09 


% " 


158 


44818 


60505 


12.22 


16.69 




1 " 


182 


51739 


69877 


21.16 


28.57 




%02. 


82 


32300 


43065 


3.34 


4.40 


10 Feet 


V2 " 


116 


45720 


60960 


9.34 


12.46 


% " 


142 


56023 


74697 


15.45 


20.36 




1 


164 


64674 


86232 


26.46 


35.28 




% " 


68 


46510 


62014 


4.75 


6.34 


12 Feet 


V2 " 


96 


65836 


87776 


13.46 


17.95 


3/4 " 


118 


80673 


107564 


22.00 


29 32 




1 " 


136 


93130 


124174 


38.10 


50.80 




^ " 


58 


63306 


84336 


6.47 


8.62 


14 Feet 


>^ " 


82 


89611 


119380 


18.31 


24.41 


% " 


101 


109805 


146282 


29.94 


39.89 




1 " 


117 


126761 


168071 


51.86 


68.09 




M OZ. 


1 
51 


82685 


110247 


8.46 


11.28 


16 Feet 


>^ " 


72 


117043 


156057 


23.95 


31.91 


% " 


89 


143419 


191225 


39.11 


52 15 




1 " 


102 


165565 


220753 


67.73 


90.31 



WHEELS. 



413 



Si^es and Weights of Cast Iron Tramway Wheels. 

SPOKE WHEELS. 



Diam. 


No. of 
Spokes. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


Diam. 


No of 
Spokes. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


20^^ 


8 


^%" 


106 lbs. 


14'' 


6 


^%'' 


98 lbs. 


18 


5 


3K 


91 " 


13 


4 


4^ 


50 ' 




18 


5 


3% 


102 " 


12 


6 


3.H 


52 ' 




18 


5 


3% 


93 " 


12 


6 


2H 


36 ' 




18 


5 


3% 


95 " 


12 


6 


2K 


31 ' 




18 


5 


3^ 


87 " 


12 


5 


2y^ 


27 ' 




18 


5 


3% 


77 " 


10 


6 


3 


29 ' 




17 


6 


3% 


92 " 


10 


6 


3 


38 ' 




17 


6 


3K 


72 " 


10 


6 


2% 


23 ' 




16 


5 


3^ 


87 " 


10 


5 


3 


34 ' 




16 


5 


3^ 


80 " ' 


9^ 


6 


13^ 


19 " 


16 


5 


3 


56 " 











Plate Wheels. 



Diam. 


No. of 
Spokes. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


Diam. 


No. of 
Spokes. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


19" 

17 

17 


6 
6 
6 


2 
2 


40 1 
28 ! 
14 i 


16 
12 


6 
6 


2% 
1 2V, 


42 
19 



Spoke Wheels Without Flanges. 



Diam. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


1 

Diam. 


Tread. 


Weight. 


18'' 

16 

14 


39^'^ 

3 

4 


145 lbs. 
140 •* 
169 " 


12 
12 
12 


6 
3 

3^8 


84 lbs. 
46 " 

85 " 



When wheels are to be pressed on their axles, an iron of medium hard- 
ness should be used. If too hard, the hub is apt to split; if too soft, the 
hub will "fuller" in a short time and become loose. Scrap iron makes a 
cheap, and at the same time, a poor wheel. 



414 



WAGES. 



RATE OF WAGES TABI^E. 

35 Cents per Hour. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hdurs. 


Amount 


K 


mis 














1 

IK 


0.35 
0.53 


16 
16K 


S5.60 

5.78 


31 

31 K 


$10.85 
11.03 


46 

463^ 


$16.10 
16.28 


2 

23^ 


0.70 

0.88 


17 

17K 


5.95 
6.13 


32 

32K 


11.20 
11.38 


47 
47>^ 


16.45 
16.63 


3 


1.05 
1.23 


18 
18K 


6.30 
6.48 


33 

33 K 


11.55 
11.73 


48 

483^ 


16.80 
16.98 


4 

4M 


1.40 
1.58 


19 
19K 


6.65 
6.83 


34 

34K 


11.90 
12.08 


49 

49K 


17.15 
17.33 


5 

5K 


1.75 
1.93 


20 

20>^ 


7.00 

7.18 


35 

35K 


12.25 
12.43 


50 

503^ 


17.50 
17.68 


6 


2.10 
2.28 


21 

21 K 


7.35 
7.53 


36 
36K 


12.60 

12.78 


51 

513^ 


17.85 
18.03 


7 
7X 


2.45 
2.63 


22 

22K 


7.70 
7.88 


37 

37>^ 


12.95 
13.13 


52 

523^ 


18.20 
18.38 


8 

8M 


2.80 
2.98 


23 

23>i 


8.05 
8.23 


38 

38^ 


13.30 
13.48 


53 

53K 


18.55 
18.73 


9 

9K 


3.15 
3.33 


24 

243^ 


8.40 
8.58 


39 

39>i 


13.65 
13,83 


54 

54 K 


18.90 
19.08 


10 

lOK 


3.50 
3.68 


25 

25K 


8.75 
8.93 


40 

40 K 


14.00 
14.18 


55 

553^ 


19.25 
19.43 


11 

11>^ 


3.85 
4.03 


26 

26K 


9.10 

9.28 


41 

41 K 


14.35 
14.53 


56 

56 K 


19.60 
19.78 


12 

12K 


4.20 
4.38 


27 

2iy, 


9.45 
9.63 


42 

423^ 


14.70 

14.88 


57 

573^ 


19.95 
20.13 


13 

13K 


4.55 
4.73 


28 

28K 


9.80 
9.98 


43 

i 433^ 


15.05 
15.23 


58 

58 K 


20.30 

20.48 


14 

14>^ 


4.90 
5.08 


29 

29K 


10.15 
10.33 


I 44 
1 443^ 


15.40 
15.58 


59 

59X 


20.65 
20.83 


15 

153^ 


5.25 
5.43 


30 
30 .M 


10.50 
10.68 


45 

45K 


15.75 
15.93 

1 


60 


21.00 



Eelskins make the best possible strings for lacing belts. One lace will 
outlast any belt, and will stand wear and hard usage where hooks or any 
other fastenings fail. 



WAGES. 



415 



Rate of Wages Tahle— Continued. 
371/2 CENTS p:er hour. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount 


K 


$0.19 














1 
IM 


0.38 
0.56 


16 

16K 


S6.00 
6.19 


31 

31K 


$11.63 
11.81 


46 

46K 


$17.25 
17.44 


2 

2y, 


0.75 
0.94 


17 

17K 


6.38 
6.56 


32 

323^ 


12.00 
12.19 


47 

473^ 


17.63 
17.81 


3 

3K 


1.13 
1.31 


18 

18K 


6.75 
6.94 


33 

33K 


12.38 
12.56 


48 

483^ 


18.00 
18.19 


4 

4K 


1.50 
1.69 


19 

19K 


7.13 
7.31 


34 

34K 


12.75 
12.94 


49 

493^ 


18.38 
18.56 


5 

5}i 


1.88 
2.06 


20 

20K 


7.50 
7.69 


35 

35>^ 


13.13 
13.31 


50 

50K 


18.75 
18.94 


6 

6V2 


2.25 
2.44 


21 

21>i 


7.88 
8.06 


36 

363^ 


13.50 
13.69 


51 

513^ 


19.13 
19.31 


7 

7y2 


2.63 
2.81 


22 

22K 


8.25 
8.44 


37 

37 K 


13.88 
14.06 


52 

52K 


19.50 
19.69 


8 

8J^ 


3.00 
3.19 


23 

233^ 


8.63 

8.81 


38 
383^ 


14.25 
14.43 


53 

53K 


19.88 
20.06 


9 

9K 


3.38 
3.56 


24 

24K 


9.00 
9.19 


39 
393^ 


14.62 
14.81 


54 

54K 


20.25 
20.44 


10 

lOK 


3.75 
3.94 


25 

25 >^ 


9.38 
9.56 


40 

40K 


15.00 
15.19 


55 

553^ 


20.63 
20.81 


11 

UK 


4.13 
4.31 


26 

263^ 


9.75 
9.94 


41 

41 K 


15.38 
15.56 


56 

56K 


21.00 
21.19 


12 

12K 


4.50 
4.69 


27 

27K 


10.13 
10.31 


42 

42K 


15.75 
15.94 


57 

573^ 


21.38 
21.56 


13 
13>^ 


4.88 
5.06 


28 

28y, 


10.50 
10.69 


43 

433^ 


16.13 
16.31 


58 
583^ 


21.75 
21.94 


14 

143^ 


5.25 
5.44 


29 

29 K 


10.88 
11.06 


44 

44 )i 


16.50 
16.69 


59 

593^ 


22.13 
22.31 


15 

153^ 


5.63 
5.81 


30 
30>i 


11.25 
11.44 


45 

453^ 


16.88 
17.06 


60 


22.50 



The art of cutting diamonds was long practiced in India and China, 
but was not known in Europe till after the fifteenth century, when it was 
discovered by Louis Van Berguen, of Bruges. 



416 



WAGES. 



Rate ot Wages Tahle,— Continued. 
55 CiRNTS PE^R HOUR. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


i Hours. 


Amount 


K 


$0.28 










1 

IK 


0.55 
0.83 


16 
16y2 


$8.80 
9.08 


31 
3iy2 


$17.05 
17.33 


46 

46y2 


$25.30 
25.58 


2 

23^ 


1.10 
1.38 


17 

i7y2 


9.35 
9.63 


32 
32y2 


17.60 
17.88 


47 

471/2 


25.85 
26.13 


3 

3>^ 


1.65 
1.93 


18 

i8y2 


9.90 
10.18 


33 

33y2 


18.15 
18.43 


48 

48y2 


26.40 
26.68 


4 

4M 


2.20 

2.48 


19 
19V2 


10.45 
10.73 


34 
34y2 


18.70 
18.98 


49 

491/2 


26.95 
27.23 


5 

5y, 


2.75 
3.03 


20 

2oy2 


11.00 
11.28 


35 

35y2 


19.25 
19.53 


50 

5oy2 


27.50 

27.78 


6 

6K 


3.30 
3.58 


21 

2iy2 


11.55 
11.83 


36 

36y2 


19.80 
20.08 


51 

5iy2 


28.05 
28.33 


7 


3.85 
4.13 


22 
221/2 


12.10 
12.38 


37 
371/2 


20.35 
20.63 


52 
521/2 


28.60 

28.88 


8 

8K 


4.40 

4.68 


23 

231/2 


12.65 
12.93 


38 
381/2 


20.90 
21.18 


53 
531/2 


29.15 
29.43 


9 

9K 


4.95 
5.23 


24 

24y2 


13.20 
13.48 


39 
39y2 


21.45 
21.73 


54 
541/2 


29.70 
29.98 


10 

lOJ-s 


5 50 

5.78 


25 

251/2 


13.75 
14.03 


40 
401/i. 


22.00 
22.28 


55 

55y2 


30.25 
30.53 


11 

IIM 


6.05 
6.33 


26 
26y2 


14,30 
14.58 


41 

4iy2 


22.55 
22.83 


56 
561/2 


30.80 
31.08 


12 

121/2 


6.60 

6.88 


27 
271/2 


14.85 
15 13 


42 

421/2 


23.10 
23.38 


57 

571/2 


31.35 
31.63 


13 

131/2 


7.15 
7.43 


28 

281/2 


15.40 
15.68 


43 

43y2 


23.65 
23.93 


58 

58y2 


31.90 
32.18 


14 

141/2 


7.70 
7.98 


29 
291/2 


15.95 
16.23 


44 

44y2 


24.20 

24.48 


59 
591/2 


32.45 
32.73 


15 

151/2 


8.25 
8.53 


30 

3oy2 


16.50 
16.78 


45 

451/2 


24.75 
25.03 


60 


33.00 



WAGES. 



417 



Rate of Wages Table.— Continued. 

60 CENTS PER HOUR. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount 


Hours. 


Amount 


V2 


$0.30 










1 




1 
11/2 


0.60 
0.90 


16 
I61/2 


$9.60 
9.90 


31 

31>^ 


$18.60 
18.90 


46 

46 >^ 


$27.60 
27.90 


2 
21/2 


1.20 
1.50 


17 

171/2 


10.20 
10.50 


32 

323^ 


19.20 
19.50 


47 

47 K 


28.20 
28.50 


3 

3V2 


1.80 
2.10 


18 

18^2 


10.80 
1 11.10 


33 


19.80 
20.10 


48^ 

48X 


28.80 
29.10 


4 

41/2 


2.40 
2.70 


19 
191/2 


11.40 
11.70 


34 


20.40 
20.70 


49 

49K 


29.40 
29.70 


5 

51/2 


3.00 
3.30 


20 

201/2 


12.00 
12.30 


35 

35>^ 


21.00 
21.30 


50 

50)i 


30.00 
30.30 


6 

61/2 


3.60 
3.90 


21 
211/2 


12.60 
12.90 


36 

sex 


21.60 
21.90 


51 

51>^ 


30.60 
30.90 


7 
71/2 


4.20 
4.50 


22 

221/2 


13.20 
13.50 


37 

SIX 


22.20 
22.50 


52 

52K 


31.20 
31.50 


8 
8V2 


4.80 
5.10 


23 

23V2 


13.80 
14.10 


38 

38K 


22.80 
23.10 


53 

53>^ 


31.80 
32.10 


9 

9% 


5.40 
5.70 


24 

241/2 


14.40 
14.70 


39 

39J^ 


23.40 
23.70 


54 

54 K 


32.40 
32.70 


10 

101/2 


6.00 
6.30 


25 

251/2 


15.00 
15.30 


40 

40K 


24.00 
24.30 


55 

55K 


33.00 
33.30 


11 

11^2 


6.60 
6.90 


26 

261/2 


15.60 
15.90 


41 

41K 


24.60 
24.90 


56 

5ex 


33.60 
33.90 


12 

121/2 


7.20 
7.50 


27 

271/2 


16.20 
16.50 


42 

42K 


25.20 
25.50 


57 

57K 


34.20 
34.50 


13 

13^2 


7.80 
8.10 


28 
281/2 


16.80 
17.10 


43 

43 K 


25.80 
26.10 


58 
58 M 


34.80 
35.10 


14 

i4y2 


8.40 
8.70 


29 
291/2 


17.40 
17.70 


44 

44 H 


26.40 
26.70 


59 

593^ 

1 


35.40 
35.70 


15 
151/2 


9.00 
9.30 


30 
301/2 


18.00 
18.30 


45 

45 K 


27.00 
27.30 


60 


36.00 



Lead in contact with steam under pressure of over 10 lbs. per square 
inch very soon loses its strength, and it is therefore good neither for pack- 
ing joints nor for conveying steam. 



27 



418 



WAGES. 



Rate of Wages Tahle— Continued. 

6a 14 CENTS P:eR HOUR. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


1 
Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount 


K 


$0.31 














1 
IK 


0.63 
0.94 


16 
16>^ 


^10.00 
i 10.31 


31 

313^ 


S19.38 
19.69 


46 

463^ 


$28.75 
29.06 


2 

2X 


1.25 
1.56 


17 

17K 


j 10.63 
1 10.94 


32 

323^ 


20.00 
20.31 


47 

47K 


29.38 
29.69 


3 

3X 


1.88 
2.19 


18 

18>^ 


1J.25 
1 11.56 


33 
333^ 


20.63 
20.94 


48 

48 >^ 


30.00 
30.31 


4 

4K 


2.50 
2.81 


19 

193^ 


' 11.88 
12.19 


34 

34>^ 


21.25 
21.56 


49 

493^ 


30.63 
30.94 


5 

51/2 


3.13 
3.44 


20 
203^ 


12.50 
12.81 


35 

35 K 


21.88 
22.19 


50 

50K 


31.25 
31.56 


6 

6 1/2 


3.75 
4.06 


21 

21K 


13.13 
13.44 


36 

363^ 


22.50 
22.81 


51 

51^ 


31.88 
32.19 


7 
7K 


4.38 
4.69 


22 

22K 


13.75 
14.06 


37 

37K 


23.13 
23.44 


52 

523^ 


32.50 
32.81 


8 
8>^ 


5.00 
5.31 


23 

233^2 


14.38 
14.69 


38 

38^ 


23.75 
24.06 


53 

53 >^ 


33.13 
33.44 


9 

9>^ 


5.63 
5.94 


24 

243^ 


15.00 
15.31 


39 

39'A 


24.38 
24.69 


54 

54 K 


33.75 
34.06 


10 

io>.; 


6.25 
6.56 


25 

25K 


15.63 
15.94 


40 

40 h' 


25.00 
25.31 


55 

55K 


34.38 
34.69 


11 

ii>^ 


6.88 
7.19 


26 

26>^ 


16.25 
16.56 


41 

413^ 


25.63 
25.94 


56 

56K 


35.00 
35.31 


12 

12K 


7.50 
7.81 


27 

27K 


16.88 
17.19 


42 

42 y2 


26.25 
26.56 


57 

57 K 


35.83 
35.94 


13 

13X 


8.13 

8.44 


28 
28>^ 


17.50 
17.81 


43 

43 >^ 


26.88 
27.19 


58 
583^ 


36.25 
36.56 


14 

143^ 


8.75 
9.06 


29 

293^ 


18.13 
18.44 


44 
441/2 


27.50 
27.81 


59 

59}4 


36.88 
37.19 


15 

i5y. 


9.38 
9.69 

i 


30 
303^ 


18.75 
19.06 


45 

453^2 


28.13 
28.44 


60 


37.50 



The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, in 
A. D. 1410. 



WAGES. 



419 



Rate of Wages Table— Cuntinued. 

65 CENTS PER HOUR. 



Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount. 


Hours. 


Amount, 


X 


$0.33 














1 
IK 


0.65 ! 
0.98 


16 
16% 


s^lO 40 
10.73 


31 
31% 


$20.15 
20.48 


46 

46% 


$29.90 
30.23 


2 

2y^ 


1.30 
1.63 


17 

17% 


11.05 
11.38 


32 

32% 


20.80 
21.13 


47 

47% 1 


30.55 
30.88 


3 

3^4 


1.95 
2.28 


18 

18% 


11.70 
12.03 


33 
33% 


21.45 

21.78 


48 i 
48% 1 


31.20 
31.53 


4 

4K 


2.60 
2.93 


19 

19% 


12.35 
12.68 


34 

34% 


22.10 
22.43 


49 

49%- 


31.85 
32.18 


5 

5y, 


3.25 
3.58 


20 

20% 


13.00 
13.33 


35 
35% 


22.75 
23.08 


50 

50% 


32.50 
32.83 


6 


3.90 
4.23 


21 

21% 


13.65 
13.98 


36 

36% 


23.40 
23.73 j 


51 

51% 


33.15 
33.48 


7 

7M 


4.55 

4.88 


22 

22% 


14.30 
14.63 


37 

37% 


24.05 
24.38 


52 

52% 


33.80 
34.13 


8 

8M 


5.20 
5.53 


23 

23% 


14 95 

15 28 


38 
38% 


24.70 
25.03 


53 

.53% 


34.45 
34.78 


9 

9>^ 


5.85 
6.18 


24 

24% 


15.60 
15.93 


39 

39% 


25.35 
25.68 


54 

54% 


35.10 
35.43 


10 
10% 


6.50 
6.83 j 


25 

25% 


16.25 
16.58 


40 

40% 


26.00 
26 33 


55 

55% 


35.75 
36.08 


11 

IIM 


7.15 

7.48 


26 

26% 


16.90 
17.23 


41 

41% 


26.65 
26.98 


56 

56% 


36.40 
36.73 


12 

12M 


7.80 
8.13 


i 27 

27% 


17.55 

17.88 


42 

42% 


27.30 
27.63 


57 

57% 


37.05 
37.38 


13 

13M 


8.45 
8.78 


28 

i 28% 


18.20 
18.53 


43 

43% 


27.95 

28.28 

■ 


58 

58% 


37.70 
38.03 


14 

14% 


^ 9.10 
i 9.43 


1 

i 29 

i 29% 


18 85 
19.18 


44 

44% 


28.60 
28.93 


59 

59% 


38.35 
38.68 


15 

15% 


1 9.75 
i 10.08 


30 

30% 


19.50 
19.83 


45 

45% 


29.25 
29.58 


60 


39.00 



In the first century B.C., Nicomedes invented a conchoid curve for the 
purpoes of bisecting an angle. 



420 



EMERY WHEELS. 



DIAMETERS AND REVOIvUTIONS OF DIFFERENT 
KINDS OF EMERY WHEELS. 



VITRIFIED WHEEL. 


VULCANITE WHEEL. 


Diara. in 


Revolutions 


Diam. in 


Revolutions 


Inches. 


per Minute. 


Inches. 


per Minute. 




Minimum. 


Maximum. 






1 


13000 


18000 


IK 


15000 to 24000 


\y^ 


10500 


14000 


2 


15000 to 24000 


2 


7900 


11000 


2yi 


10000 to 16000 


2K 


6330 


8800 


3 


8250 to 13400 


3 


5275 


7400 


3,^ 


7250 to 11600 


3K 


4500 


6300 


4 


6250 to 10000 


4 


3950 


5500 


5 


5000 to 8000 


43^ 


3500 


4900 


6 


4200 to 6688 


5 


3160 


4400 


6K 


3850 to 6170 


6 


2640 


3700 ; 


1% 


3350 to 5348 


7 


2260 


3160 1 


8 


3150 to 5045 


8 


1980 


2770 1 


8>^ 


2950 to 4726 


9 


1760 


2460 


9>i 


2650 to 4222 


10 


1580 


2210 


lOK 


2450 to 3820 


12 


1320 


1850 


12 


2100 to 3344 


14 


1130 


1580 


14 


1800 to 2870 


16 


990 


1380 


16 


1550 to 2508 


18 


880 


1230 


18 


1400 to 2230 


20 


790 


1100 


20 


1250 to 2006 


22 


720 


1000 


22 


1150 to 1840 


24 


660 


920 


24 


1050 to 1672 


26 


600 1 850 


26 


950 to 1542 


30 


500 


735 


30 
36 


835 to 1336 
700 to 1116 








48 . 


525 to 840 



In ordering an emery wheel always state whether the wheel is to run 
dry, or in water. Keep the wheel "true." It will last twice as long if you 
do so. Emery wheels sometimes burst when they are treated badly. Give 
the wheel a chance before you condemn the manufacturer. Every bad effect 
has its cause. In the case of emery wheels it is generally ill usage. 



EMERY WHEELS. 



421 



^Emery Wheels,— Continued. 



MECHANICAL. 


CELLULOID. 


CHEMICAL. 


Diam. in 


Revolutions 


Diam. in 


Revolutions 


Diam. in 


Revolutions 


Inches, 


per Minute. 


Inches. 


per Minute. 


Inches. 


per Minute. 


IH 


10000 


% 








2 


10000 


1 








2y2 


8000 


I'A 




IK 


14400 


3 


6000 


2 




2 


10800 


3M 


5000 


2K 




2K 


8640 


4 


4500 


3 


7400 


3 


7200 


4K 


4000 


3K 


6425 


4 


5400 


5 


3700 


4 


5450 


5 


4320 


6 


3200 


! 5 


4400 


6 


3600 


7 


2700 


6 


3600 


7 


3086 


8 


2400 


7 


3150 


7K 


2880 


9 


2100 


8 


2750 


8 


2700 


10>^ 


1800 


1 9 


2450 


9 


2400 


12 


1600 


10 


2200 


10 


2150 


14 


1350 


12 


1850 


12 


1800 


16 


1200 


14 


1600 


14 


1570 


18 


1050 


16 


1400 


16 


1350 


20 


950 


18 


1250 


18 


1222 


22 


900 


20 


1100 


20 


1080 


24 


850 


22 


1000 


22 


1000 


26 


750 ' 


24 


925 


1 24 


917 


30 


700 






26 


611 


36 


550 











CUP WHEELS. 










8 


1 
1200 1 




9 


1000 










12 


800 










14 


700 










16 


^ 600 










18 


500 










20 


450 










24 


400 











The Vitrified Wheel is composed of clav and emery, in different propor- 
tions, hardened to vitrifaction in a kiln like crockery- ware. The vulcanite 
is composed of emery and rubber vulcanized. 

The Celluloid is a composition of gun-cotton and camphor mixed with 
emery, and hardened at a low temperature. 

The mechanical wheel ic5 made a flux, of which the foundation is linseed 
oil, and is hardened under 300 degrees of heat. The chemical wheel is made 



422 



EMERY WHEELS — ZINC. 



by using chemicals that harden into a sort of artificial stone when mixed 
with emery. 

"The centrifugal force of a body, moving with different velocities in the 
same circle, is proportional to the square of the velocity. Thus the centrif- 
ugal force of a body making 10 revolutions in a minute is four times as 
great as the centrifugal force of the same body making five revolutions in a 
minute. Hence in equal circles the forces are inversely as the squares of 
the times of revolution." 

The centrifugal force evolved by an emery wheel in motion is, as the 
square of its velocity; hence a wheel of any given size is subject to four 
times the breaking strain at 2,000 revolutions that it is at 1,000, and at 
intermediate rates, of course, in proportion. 

Experience has demonstrated beyond controversy that, taking into ac- 
count safety, durability, and liability to heat, 5,500 feet per minute at the 
periphery, or outer surface, gives the best results. 

Examples: 

Wheel 10^' diam. squared = 100\centrifugal force 

5^^ " '■ = 25/equals 4 times. 

12" " " = 144\centrifugal force 

8'' " " = 64/equals 214 times. 

12'' '' " = 144\centrifugal force 

^" " " = 16/equals 9 times. 



APPROXIMATE WI^IGHT OF SHBiET ^INC. 



1 

Zinc 1 
Numbers. 


Weight per 
Square Foot. 


Thickness in 

Decimals of 

an Inch. 


About Equal 

to 
Stubs' Gauge. 


About Equal 

to 
B. & S. Gauge. 


5 


.37 


.OiO(j-Jo) 


31 


30 


6 


.45 


.012 


30 


28s 


7 


.52 


.014 


28 


27 


8 


.60 


.016 


27 


26 


9 


.67 


.018 


26 


25 


10 


.75 


.020 (Jo) 


25 


24 


11 


.90 


.024 


23 


22y2 


12 


1.05 


.028 


22 


21 


13 


1.20 


.032 


21 


20 


14 


1.35 


.036 


20 


19 


15 


1.50 


.040 (5L) 


19s 


18 


16 


1.68 


.045 


18s 


17 


17 


1.87 


.050 


18f 


16 


18 


2.06 


.055 


17s 


15s 


19 


2.25 


•060(A) 


17f 


14V2 


20 


2.62 


.070 


15s 


13s 


21 


3.00 


.080 


14s 


12 


22 


3.37 


.090 


13s 


11 


23 


3.75 


•100 (jV) 


12 


10 


24 


4.70 


.125(14) 


i 11 


8s 


25 


9.40 


.250(^4) 


' 3s 


2s 


26 


14.10 


.375(3^) 


00s 


oof 


Vo in. 


18.80 


.500 






lin. 


37.60 


1.000 







ZINC. 4-23 



Weights of Pure Zinc Drawn Round Rods, per I/ineal Foot. 

%-mch Diameter 33 Lbs. 



V2 '• 

% " 

% " 

1 '• 



.58 

.90 

1.30 

1.78 

2.32 



Approximate Weights, per I^ineal Foot, of Braced ^inc 

Tubing. 

No. 22 B. & S. Gauge.— .02534 Inxh. 

Lb. per Foot. 

%-inch O. D 0840 

V2 " " 1300 

% " " 1950 

% " '• 2064 

% " " 2382 

1 " " 2812 

m " " 3900 

IV2 " " 4687 



The ore from which zinc is obtained is called "Black Jack" among 
miners and metallurgists. The reduced ore cast into slabs is called 
"Spelter." Spelter when rolled into sheets and drawn into tubes is called 
zinc, by which name the metal is most generally known. The very rare 
metal gallium is extracted from Black Jack. It is found in such minute 
quantities, and is so difficult of extraction, as to render it the most costly 
of all the rarer metals, being quoted at over $3,000 per ounce. 



Electrical Department. 



ELECTRICITY. 427 



EI/BCTRICITY. 

Before dealing with this subject it is necessary that the terms and words 
which are used should convey a clear and comprehensive meaning to the 
reader. The terms used by the engineer in the electrical work which comes 
under his care and direction are the "Ampere," the " Volt," the " Ohm " and 
the "Watt." 

The Volt. 

The Volt is the practical unit of electro-motive force — such an electro- 
motive force as would cause a current of one ampere to flow against the 
resistance of one ohm. 

This unit is the one, perhaps, most frequently used in common conver- 
sation and print. It is difficult to explain the meaning of this term in pop- 
ular language, unless we describe it as somewhat similar to the pressure of 
steam or water in a pipe. As we increase the pressure of water in a pipe we 
know it will increase thequantity of the current if it is free to move; so if we 
increase electrical pressure in a conductor we will increase the quantity of 
electrical energy passing through this conductor. 

If we increase the pressure of water in a pipe where it has no chance to 
flow, we know we will increase the liability to leakage or breaking through 
its confinement. This is also true of electrical pressure as measured by 
volts. In these comparisons we must always remember that bodies like 
water have weight and cause friction when in motion, while in electrical 
measurements we can measure effects only. We have no more ability to 
see or handle electricity than we can see or handle the human soul. 

Electro-motive force is sometimes said to be the soul of matter. Per- 
haps we may yet find it the source of all animal and vegetable life as well 
as of all motion in the universe. Its effects in producing motion, heat, 
light, or in exciting magnetic or chemical changes gives us the only means 
to measure it. 

Although the conception of the meaning of the term volt is more ideal 
than that of bodily pressure, caused bj' a weight or a w^ater pressure, yet 
as a measuring unit it is precise and positive in its own province. 

The Ohm. 

The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance — such a resistance as would 
limit the flow of electricity under an electro-motive force of one volt to a 
current of one ampere. A meg ohm is 1,000,000 ohms. 

A legal ohm is the resistance of a column of mercury one square millo- 
meterin area of cross section, and 106 centimeters in length, at a temper- 
ature of degrees C. or 32 degrees F. 

In popular language the ohm may be compared to the resistance water 
meets with as it flows through a pipe. When electricity is going through a 
conductor, part of its energy- is expended in the effort. It is like taking toll 



428 ELECTRICITY. 



from a spirit. It has been found by experiment that a pure copper wire, one- 
thousandth of an inch in diameter, at normal temperature, takes its toll from 
its ghost-like passenger at the rate of about ten ohms for each foot of wire in 
length. This gives us a convenient, practical measure, by which to calcu- 
late the resistance that electricity meets w^ith in passing through copper 
conductors of various sizes. This resistance varies largely when electricity 
passes through different conducting substances depending on the material 
as well as on area and temperature. The resistance to the passage oi 
electricity through the fine carbon filament of the incandescent lamp, causes 
it to glow with its brilliant light. In this case, the electricity pays its toll 
in performing useful work. It causes such intense molecular action among 
the atoms of the carbon filament as to raise them to an intense heat. It 
gives us heat and light without combustion. Cold carbon has about 
twenty- five hundred times the resistance of copper of the same temperature 
and area, although when the carbon is heated to incandescence, this re- 
sistance is decreased to about one-half. A more graphic conception of the 
resistance in the carbon filaments of a group of twelve ordinary sixteen- 
candle power incandescent lamps can be obtained, when we are told that 
as much energy is expended in causing this molecular action as would be 
necessary to throw a pound weight each second over the hat of the statue 
ofPennwhen placed in its proposed position on the tower of the Philadelphia 
City Hall. This is equivalent to about one horse power. 

The Ampere. 

The ampere is the pfactical unit of electric current — such a current [or 
rate of flow, or transmission of electricity] as would pass, with an electro- 
motive force of one volt, through a circuit whose resistance is equal to one 
ohm; a current of such a strength as would deposit from solution .006084 
grain of copper per second. 

To carry out the analogj^ between the flow of water and electrical 
energy, bearing in mind that we want to know the rate of the flow as well 
as the pressure behind it to find this energy, so in electrical measurements 
we want the rate of flow expressed in amperes, and the pressure in volts, 
to find the electrical efliect. This is what the practical business man wants 

to know. 

The Watt. 

The watt is the unit of electric power — the volt-ampere; the power de- 
veloped when 44.25 foot-pounds of work are done per minute, or .7375 
foot-pounds per second; y\q horse power. 

There are three equations which give the value of the watt: [1st], C E- 

watts; [2nd], C2 R=watts; [3rd], - = watts. Where C equals the current 

R 

in amperes, E equals the electro-motive force in volt, and R equals the re- 
sistance in ohms. 

A kilo-watt is one thousand watts. 

Dynamos are bought and sold, measured by their capacity to deliver 
this marketable, although intangible, unweighable influence for practical 
every-day use. Builders of electrical generators issue their commercial 



ELECTRICITY. 429 



lists with the ability of their machines "to do work," marked by the niys- 
terious symbol K. W., meaning kilo-watts or one thousand watts. 

The watt is the electrical unit of ability to do work and is similar in 
use to the well-known mechanical unit horse-power. Seven hundred and 
forty-six watts are equivalent to one horse-power. 

As the medical profession go farther back in history than the electrical, 
they have chosen the dead Latin language for many of their symbols and 
terms, while electricians in their measurements have wisely seized the mod- 
ern as well as more elegant and precise metric system of the French. It is 
an open and most grateful tribute paid by the able men of all nations en- 
gaged in electrical affairs, to the nicety and brilliancj^ of the French intdlect. 
The names of these units are given in honor of the well-known electricians, 
Volta, Ohm, Ampere, while the unit of work is in honor of the great steam 
engineer, Watt. 

Ohm's I/aw. 

The fundemental law which gives the mathematical phase of electrical 
engineering is called "Ohm's Law," and is extremely simple. It is " TAe 
strength of current [amperes] in any circuit varies directly as the electro- 
motive force [volts], and inversely as the total resistance [ohms] of the 
circuit/^ Likewise, the current between any two points varies as the dif- 
ference of potential between those points, and inversely as the resistance to 
be overcome. 

This law is usually expressed in units, by means of symbols, where C is 
the current in amperes, E the electro-motive force in volts, and R the re- 

sistance in ohms. The law is stated, C = — 

Candle Power. 

The candle-power is the unit of light; and a standard candle is a candle 
of definite composition which, with a given consumption in a given time, 
will produce a light of a fixed and definite brightness. A candle which burns 
120 grains of spermaceti wax per hour, or two grains per minute, will give 
an illumination equal to one standard candle. 

In comparing the capacity of electrical machines in candle-power a 
great mistake is made, as the electrical generators or dynamos do not pro- 
duce light, but produce electrical energy; and this energy in being trans- 
formed into light, is subject to the efficiency of the lamp which transforms 
the one energ}^ into the other — that is, electrical energy into the energy of 
illumination. 

According to Slinger and Broker, the measurement of candle-power 
from standard candles is difficult, as the following causes for incorrect re- 
sults are apt to occur and necessitate great care in making observations: 

1st. Definite forms of candle-power, which cause a varying consump- 
tion of material per second, and consequently a varying light for the stand- 
ard candle. 

2d. Variations in the consumption of the spermaceti of which the can- 
dle is composed, as spermaceti is not a definite chemical compound but con- 
sists of a mixture of various substances ; therefore, even if the consumption 
is maintained constant, the light-giving power is not necessarily constant. 



430 



ELECTRICITY. 



3d. Variations in the consumption and the character of the wick — such 
as the number and size of the threads of which it is formed, and the close- 
ness of the strands — all of which circumstances influence the amount of 
light given off bj^ the candle. 

4th. The light emitted in certain directions varies in a marked degree 
with the shape of the wick. The mere bending of a wicks, therefore, may 
cause the amount of light to vary considerably. 

5th. The light varies with the thickness of the wick. Thick wicks give 
less light than thin wicks. 

6th. The light given b^' the standard candle varies with the tempera- 
ture of the testing room. As the temperature rises the light given off by the 
standard candle increases. 

7tli. Currents of air, b3' producing variations in the amount of melting 
wax in the cup of the candle, var}^ the amount of light emitted. 

These difficulties in obtaining a fixed amount of light from a standard 
candle, together with the difficulty of comparing a feeble light of a single 
candle-power with the light of a much more powerful source, such as the 
arc lamp, coupled with the additional difficult^' arising from the difference 
in the colors of the light, have led to the use of other standards of light than 
those furnished b^^ the standard candle. 

Nominal CandJe-Power is, a term sometimes applied to the candle-power 
taken in a certain favorable direction. This term is generally used in arc 
lighting. In the ordinary arc lamp the greatest amount of light is emitted 
at a particular point, viz.: from the crater in the upper or positive carbon. 
The term "rated candle-power" is sometimes used for nominal candle-power. 

Spherical Candle-Power is the average or mean value of candle-power 
taken at a number of points around the source of light. 

Efficiency of Incandescent Lamps: As all incandescent lamps are rated 
in candle-power, it is well to know the amount of electrical energy that is 
used in the lamp to obtain the candle-power at which the lamp is rated. 
Lamps in commercial use today vary from three and one-half watts for 
each candle-power developed to as high as five and one-half watts. The 
following table compiled b^^ Mr George Cutter gives the average of the 
amount of energy each lamp consumes per candle-power: 

Amperes Per I^amp. 



Volts 


52 


75 


110 


220 


330 


440 


1000 


2000 








Watts per C. P.... 


3.6 


3.6 1 4.2 


4.2 


4.2 


4.2 


3.6 


3.6 


IOC. P 


.69 


.48 


.38 


.19 


.127 

.20 

.253 


.095 


.036 


.018 






16C. P 


l.lOj .76| .61 


.30 


.15 


.0576 


.0288 


20 C. P 


1.38J .96| .76 


.38 


.19 


.072 


.036 


25 C. P 


1.73 


1.2 1 .95 
1.53J 1.22 


.475 
.61 


.32 
.41 
.63 

1.26 


.24 


.09 


.045 


32C. P 


2.21 


.305 


.115 


.0575 


50C. P 


3.46 


2.4 


1.9 


.95 


.47 


.18 


.09 


100 C.P 


6.92 
10.38 


4.8 
7.2 


3.8 
5.7 


1.90 
2.85 


.94 


.36 


.18 


150 C.P 


1.89 


1.41 


.54 


.27 



ELECTRICITY 



431 



Arc Lamps of a nominal 2,000-canclle power require about 500 watts; 
and the arc light circuits which are in use today by the standard systems 
have a current of from eight to ten amperes. 

Horse Power. 

A horse-power is a mechanical unit, and is the work done in raising 550 
pounds one foot high in one second, or 33,000 pounds one foot high per 
minute; 74-6 watts equal one horse-power. 

Electrical horse-power and mechanical horse-power are equivalent; both 
have the same value, one being expressed in electrical units, the other in foot 

pounds. 

Methods of Wiring. 

Multiple Arc Wiring is the system used most extensivelj'' for incandes- 
cent lighting and power purposes, and it is frequently spoken of as wiring 
in parallel. Two wires are run side by side, one the negative and one the 

1 



Q 



positive, and lamps or motors are connected across from one side to the 
other, as shown in diagram No. 1, a constant difference of pressure being 
maintained between the positive and negative wires, and the current vary- 
ing as the number of devices for utilizing the same are increased or decreased. 
The Series System is in the nature of a loop, the greatest difference of 
pressure being at the terminals of a loop. The current in this system of 



•o 

4- 




^o^ 



^:Oqr 



432 



ELECTRICITY. 



wiring is constant, while the pressure varies as the devices are cut in or cut 
out of circuit. The principle of this system is shown in diagram No. 2. 
The Series Multiple is a system where a number of multiple arc systems 




-o 




n^! HH 



is placed in series, and will be indicated by its name, as shown in diagram 
No. 3. 

The Multiple Series is a system where a number of small series or de- 




vices are connected up on a multiple arc system, as is shown in diagram 
No. 4. 

The Edison Three-Wire System is in the nature of a multiple series. In- 
candescent lamps, not being made to stand a higher pressure than slightly 
above 110 volts, a system was devised so that 220 volts could be used by plac- 
ing on a multiple arc system two lamps in series, each taking 110 volts, or 
the two taking 220 volts. The difficulty with this system was that two lamps 
had to be turned off or on at the same time. To avoid this, a third wire, 
which is called the neutral wire, was placed between the two lamps of the 



ELECTRICITY. 



433 



series, and run back to the dynamo. In this way, if there were ten lamps 
on one side of the neutral wire and but eight on the other, the surplus cur- 
rent would flow back to the central station and permit the turning on or 




€ — € 



6 



6 



off of lights at will, arrangements being made at the central station to take 
care of the current on the neutral wire. This system is shown in diagram 
No. 5. 

Conductors and Insulators or Non-Conductors. 

All substances offer to the transmission of electrical energy more or less 
resistance. The bodies which offer the greatest resistance have been classed 
as insulators or non-conductors, and those which offer the least resistance 
are called conductors. The transition from a conductor to a non-conductor 
is not abrupt, for the poorest conductors are to someextent insulators, and 
even the best conductor offers some resistance to the passage of electricity. 
The following table exhibits the comparative position occupied by different 
substances: 

CONDUCTORS. NON-CONDUCTORS OR INSUL.\TORS. 

Metals, Ice, 

Charcoal, Caoutchouc, 

Graphite, Dry air, 

Acids, Silk, 

Water, Glass, 

Animals, Wax, 

Soluble Salts. Sulphur and resins, 

Amber, 

Shellac. 



4-34 ELECTRICITY. 



Among the metals there is a great difference in the resistance offered to 
the transmission of electrical energj^ and the following is a table of rela- 
tive resistance, taking silver as a unit: 

RELATIVE REStgTANCE. 

Silver, at 32° Fahr 1. 

Copper " 1.06 

Zinc " 3.74 

Platinum " 6.02 

Iron " 6.46 

German silver '' 13.91 

Mercury " • 63.24 

In the above table there is some question as to the correctness of the 
relative resistance of copper, as some experimenters have claimed that cop- 
per offers even a lower resistance than silver. Copper, however, in addition 
to its electrical qualities, commercially and mechanically offers advantages 
which has made it almost universally adopted for the transmission of elec- 
trical energy; and in practical work the engineer will find that it is the cop- 
per wire that he has to deal with. All electric light and power wiring tables 
are based upon copper wire. 

• Circular Mill. 

A circular mill is the unit of area. A mill is one-thousandth part of an 
inch, and a circular mill is the area of a circle whose diameter is one mill. 

Let us inquire why we use area of a circle, in giving the size of a wire, 
rather than the area of a square as is done in all other mechanical calcula- 
tions. Why not use a square mill instead of a circular mill ? As far as the 
minuteness in size is concerned, one would answer just as well as the other. 
A wire of but one-tenth of an inch in diameter has a sectional area of 10,- 
000 circular mills. A circular mill is only about one-fourth smaller than a 
square mill. If our wires were square instead of round, electricians would 
have used the square mill instead of the circular mill. So we rday answer 
that, as wires are round, and as we frequently desire to compare their re- 
sp.ective areas, we can do so most conveniently in circular mills. We can 
measure their diameters and compute these diameters in thousandths of an 
inch. As the areas of all circles vary as the squares of their diameters, then, 
by having the diameters, we can, by one simple act of multiplication, find 
the number of circular mills contained in each wire. As the electrical capa- 
city of a wire to convey electricity varies as its sectional area we use this 
simple method to obtain the area, which is of great convenience in ordinary 
electrical calculations. 

The Resistance of Copper Wire. 

The resistance of any conductor varies directly as its length and in- 
versely as its sectional area. . That is, if we increase the length of a wire, 
just as we increase the length we increase the resistance; and if we double 
the area of a wire, we halve the resistance. Knowing this, all that is nec- 
essary to determine the resistance of any piece of copper wire is to decide 
upon some unit of length and some unit of area, and determine the resist- 



ELECTRICITY. 435 



ance; and from this we will know that the resistance of any length of wire 
will be as many times greater than it is greater than the unit in length, and 
as many times less as it is greater in area. The unit of length used in 
America is the foot, and the unit of area of the wire is the circular mill. It 
is found by experiment that the resistance of one foot of copper wire, one 
circular mill in area, at between fifty and sixty degrees Fahr., is about 10.61 
ohms. If we had a wire of a thousand circular mills in area and one hun- 
dred feet long, and we wish to know the resistance, we would see that, due 
to the length, the resistance would be increased 100 times, while, due to the 
area, it would be decreased 1,000 times; and we would simply multiply 
10.61 ohms by 100 and divide by 1,000, which would give us practically a 
result of 1.06 ohms. 

Determination of Wires. 

The three units and Ohm's law represent the fundamental basis upon 
which all electrical wiring is determined. 

The resistance of a substance varies directly as its length, and inversely 
as its area of cross section. Thus, by increasing the length of a wire we 
increase the total resistance in proportion. But, on the other hand, as we 
increase the area we decrease the resistance. It requires pressure (volts) 
to overcome this resistance, and it is only pressure that is lost or used up. 
The analogy of forcing water along a pipe illustrates this point. We lose 
the pressure, but the quantity of water remains unchanged; and so it is 
with electrical energy. If in this conducting circuit we start out with one 
ampere, the ampere is not lost, but returns to the generating apparatus, 
and onl3' the pressure (volts generated) is lost in doing the work of over- 
coming the resistance in the circuit. The work done in various portions 
of the circuit is proportional to the resistance of each portion. In electric 
wiring the end in view is to transmit as much of the electrical energy to the 
points at which it is to be used and to use as little as possible in the wires 
forming the path-way. 

Wiring tables have been prepared so that the size of conductors may 
be determined for any percentage of loss. Thus, wires figured for two 
per cent loss, means that two per cent of the total pressure is to be used 
up in forcing the electrical energy along the wire, and ninetj^-eight per 
cent of the pressure is utilized in doing the work — in'the incandescent lamp, 
or whatever appliance may be in the circuit. 

It requires one volt to force an ampere through a conductor having a 
resistance of one ohm; or, in other words, we lose just one volt. If we had 
fifty-one volts at the start, we would have fifty volts multiplied by one 
ampere, or fifty watts of energy available for w^ork, the work done in over- 
coming the resistance being one volt multiplied by one ampere, or one watt 
— practically, just about two per cent*of the total energy supplied. 

Method of Preparing a Wiring Table. 

The resistance of one foot of copper one circular mill in area is 10.61 
ohms. The resistance of a conductor will change more or less with the 
change of temperature, but as far as practical wiring is concerned, resist- 



436 ELECTRICITY. 



ance is a constant factor. The length of wire in American tables 
is in feet, and the area in sizes of some standard wire gauge. The 
Brown & Sharpe [B. & S,], or American gauge, and the Birmingham wire 
gauge, are the ones in use. In all of the wiring tables given, the wires are 
in the B. & S. gauge unless otherwMse stated. 

In preparing a wiring table, a certain loss of energy is decided upon, 
and the first step is to ascertain the size of wire that will carry an ampere 
a distance of one foot, consuming an amount of energy that has been de- 
cided upon as the basis for the table. Then, knowing the size to carry one 
ampere a distance of one foot, the relative sizes for a number of amperes 
and a variety of distances are determined by multiplying this known size 
by the number of amperes and the number of feet. A variety of results are 
figured out and put in tabular form to simplify the calculation. The areas 
in these tables are expressed in the sizes of wire in use in the commercial 
world instead of using the number of circular mills. 

To illustrate by example will make the explanation more explicit. The 
table being determined will be a two-wire multiple arc table, and will have 
for the basis 50 volts pressure, with a loss of one per cent. The units in 
the table will be amperes and feet. One per cent of 50 volts is one-half 
volt. To carry an ampere a distance of one foot would mean carrying it 
along two feet of wire, as there would be one foot for the out-going or pos- 
itive and one for the return circuit or negative wire, thus making two feet 
of wire. The amount of energy consumed depends upon the resistance to 
be overcome; and as we have fixed the distance one foot, or the length of 
the wire as two feet, the dimensions to determine, in order to obtain the 
correct resistance, is the area. The total loss of pressure in the w^ire is 
about one-half volt, and the current transmitted one ampere. The resist- 
ance [ohms] is equal to the pressure divided by the current. In this case it 
is one-half volt, divided by one ampere, which gives us as the required re- 
sistance, one-half ohm. The resistance of one foot of copper wire one cir- 
cular mill in area is 10.61 ohms, and two feet will be double that, or 21.22 
ohms. As the resistance varies inversely as the area, and the resistance of 
a wire one circular mill is 21.22 ohms, the area of a wire having but one- 
half ohm resistance would have to be as many times greater in area as one- 
half is divided into 21-22, which is 42.44; and therefore 42.44 circular 
mills is the area required for a w^ire which will carry one ampere a distance 
of one foot with the expenditure of one-half volt; and this is constant for a 
50-volt table for one per cent loss. 

To carry 10 amperes 20 feet the number of amperes is multiplied by the 
number of feet, and this is multiplied by the constant [10x20x42.44,] 
which is 8488 circular mills, which corresponds approximately with No. 
11 B. & S. wire [8234 circular mills equal No. 11 B. & S. wire.] 
This operation repeated, starting with one ampere up to 100 am- 
peres, with distances of from 10 feet up to 200 feet, will give the 
results for a complete wire table. If the table was to be based upon one 
volt loss, the constant would be decreased to one-half, or 21. 22. The reason 
for this is plain: the pressure to be lost or used in the wire has been doubled, 
and the resistance must b^ equally increased; and by doubling the resist- 



ELECTRICITY. 



437 



ance of the same length of wire we halve the area. The constant for a 
table based upon amperes transmitted and volts lost is the same for all 
voltages, it being dependent upon the volts lost. That is, the constant for 
100 volt table for one volt loss, and the constant for a table of 50 volts 
with one volt loss, is the same; but the constant for 100 volt table at two 
per cent loss, which is two volts, and the constant for a two per cent loss 
of fifty volts [which is but one volt], are not the same. 



Wiring Tables. 

In incandescent wiring the electro-motive force or the pressure in volts 
most commonly used are 50 volts, 110 volts and 220 volts. Sometimes 
the pressure used in stations will be a little above or a little below these 
standards, but in figuring for the sizes of wires to be used, the tables here- 
inafter given are all-sufficient. 



Wiring Table for 50 Volt, 16 Candle Power I/amps. 

LOSS OF 1 VOLT. 





DISTANCE IN FEET TO CENTER OF 




WIRE SIZES ARE INDICATED BELOW IN 


NO. OF 






DISTRIBUTION 












B. & S. GAUGE. 


LAMPS. 


























20' 


25^ 


30' 


35' 


40' 


45' 


_50^ 


60' 


70' 


80' 


90' 


100' 120' 


140' 


160' 180 '200' 


1 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


15 


14 


14 13 


2 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


Hi 10 


3 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


11 


10 


10 


9 9 


4 


16 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8| 7 


5 


16 


J6 


15 


14 


13 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


16 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


7 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


8 


15 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


9 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


10 


14 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


12 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


14 


12 


11 


10 


10 


9 


9 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


16 


12 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


18 


11 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


20 


11 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 


25 


10 


9 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


1 










30 


9 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 











00 


35 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





00 


00 


000 


40 


8 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





00 


000 


000 


000 


45 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





00 


00 


000 


000 0000 


50 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1 








00 


000 


000 


ooooloooo 


55 


6 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 








00 


00 


000 


0000 


0000 0000 


60 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


1 








00 


00 


000 


000 


0000 






65 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 








00 


00 


000 


0000 


0000 






70 


4 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





00 


00 


000 


000 


0000 


0000 


...'. 




75 


4 
3 


4 
3 


3 
3 


3 
2 


2 
2 


1 
1 


1 

1 






00 
00 


00 
00 


000 
000 


000 
000 


0000 
0000 


0000 
0000 








80 








90 


3 

9 


3 

2 


2 
2 


2 
1 


1 

1 


1 







00 
00 


GO 
000 


000 
000 


000 
0000 


0000 
0000 


0000 











100 










......... 









438 



ELECTRICITY. 



Wiring Table for no Volt, i6 Candle Power I/amps. 

LOSS OF 1 1-10 YOLTS. 





DISTANCE IN FEET TO CENTER OF 




WIRE SIZES ARE INDICATED BELOW IN 


NO. OF 






DISTRIBUTION. 












B. & S. GAUGE. 






LAMPS. 




































20' 


25' 


30' 


35' 


40' 


45' 


50' 
79 


60' 


70' 

19 


80' 
19 


90' 
19 


100' 
19 


120' 
19 


140' 
18 


160' 
17 


180' 
17 


200' 


1 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


16 


2 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


18 


18 


17 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


13 


.3 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


18 


18 


17 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


4 


19 


19 


19 


18 


18 


17 


16 


16 


15 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


5 


19 


19 


18 


17 


16 


16 


16 


15 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


6 


19 


18 


17 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


7 


18 


17 


16 


16 


15 


15 


14 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


18 


17 


16 


15 


15 


14 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


9 


17 


16 


15 


15 


14 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


10 


17 


16 


15 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


12 


16 


15 


14 


14 


13 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


14 


15 


14 


13 


13 


12 


12 


11 


10 


10 


9 


9 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


16 


15 


14 


13 


12 


12 


11 


11 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


18 


14 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


20 


14 


13 


12 


11 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


25 


13 


12 


11 


10 


10 


9 


9 


H 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


30 


12 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


3 


2 


JIT) 


11 


10 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


40 


11 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


1 


1 


1 


45 


10 


9 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 





50 


9 


9 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1 








55 


9. 


8 


8 


7 


6 


G 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 











60 


8 


8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 









65 


8 


8 


7 


G 


G 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 












70 


7 




7 


G 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 












75 


7 


7 


G 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 














80 


6 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 














90 


6 


6 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 
















100 


5 


5 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1 
























' " " ' 







In figuring for alternating currents, the pressure used for the primary 
circuits, or the lines used for transmitting the current before it reaches the 
converter, is either 1,000 or 2,000 volts. On the right-hand corner of the 
table is shown the amount of current which the different sized candle power 
lamps will take at the voltage upon which the table is based. 



ELECTRICITY. 



439 



u 

s 

a; 

Vr 






t- 30 Tf ■<»< 



iCW 05 i- :0 



c» 00 o ■* cft »'2,°1'* '^ ' 
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coon — 5 



) ■O•l-- 
<C0C^l ? 



ifsoo So 

— «0 QO IC w 

i>cooadccr 






oo»flOin Qoocoinso 
TT M CO ?o — «o CO o 00 ;o 



eoc<t5D«5— I ooeo 



lOO OOQ 
WOOiflQ 

— lO ift in CO 

— ododorf 
«o-*cocoo« 



OOiTliftQ 

CO CO — is -^ 
Oiin-rfaTt-r 



1 iC O O lO O O «3 

1 o ■* ci lO c5 g; 1- 



■^ CO CO'^J »-i — 



OOOiCO 
iS in O 5Q 3D 

ooeoocsc- 
oiin 



o in 00 o i^ 

J5 g^'i:«^:^" 



m oomo 

CM o5 in in -^ 

05 "^ CO Tf t* 



1^ — CO— in — 



• I- coo XI 



30«5in-<*<CO 



oinomin 



ino^s^o 



ini'-inojo ojooot- o>nojo?o 

oooi-coo cooo<-o ocooo — 
o '^ o c Tvt in o «o w^o 00 --0 in •* CO 



88888 

05 in ■* ■*• w 
o-*'osin?i 
con — — — 



ooooo ooooo 

O CJ O •* TT -^ — n o* — 

i^«o — 0030 o-*'05inn 

oT t- ^o'tji' fo" eon — — — 



>00! 

I in in I 
mn; 



?is;i^s; 



CO con — — 



ooooo 
oin in o o 
O — oinoo 
co'si'n'"— -^"^ 

?o n o 00 «3 



o in o ift o ininoinin 

I- — in as o 50 — o CO — 

— 00 — o_^Tj^ oooi^ino 

•-onooo'o in^jTconoJ" 



:g88S? §^ 

ojoooo ineo 



88888 

moon n 



ooooo 



88888 8888^ 

nnn^i-^^o^ wo^ooooo 
•^'oTin'n'or t-'^-^eoeo" 



8g28S SS 

TT 05 in <M o» i^in 



;SSS8 

1 cocoon 



conn — — 



ooooo 
o ^ o O "O 
O 50 !0 ro :0 

co"^-* — o 
o 00 «o in -<*< 



OMOcoo oocoot-co 
C0«3C0 — 00 — o-*oo 



ooooo C050 

OTf — o«3 ooi 
n ino ?D n ot- 



>oo 
;SSin2? 



o ooooo ooooo ooooo Oi 
o ooooo o in o o o ooooin oc 
m inmooo m'^rmniN n — «5«oo ooc 



Oin 

— 05 

in — 



I Ti< Tt" -^ n 



nj>t-' 

n Oi t- ; 



|8S38i 

in I ooooco 

— n'oo'ooT 

I lo -H — n in 

?D>n ^con 



ooooo 

O CO CO<© CO 

ocoecoio 



n — — — 



oncono no30 — o 
'r — o n'ln o'«o'n o'oo" 
50ini*-con <M — — — 



O O O O CO CO CO 

o i-- n o CO — 05 

■<*<__o o n in o in 

tc'in ■*' co'oi" n — 



88888 

ooooo 



QOinoooi oiinTf 

I- t- — 00 30 o ■* OV 



^^ 



ooooo ggooo 

o^ o o_^-<r TiH^ TT — n^n — 

t-^:d — oooo' o'TjTaTinn 

c»t-5C-*eo eon— I — — 



82588 §8 

o o o 00 00 o eo_^ 
os'i-OTreo eon 



1--XOJO— ojco-*in«o 



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I 88° 



— n CO TT in 



; t- 00 05 o — OJ 00 rf in «o 



888 



n --o t> 30 CR o — 0-} CO -Tti in 'D 



8='-nc^ 



iinoi^30 oio — o?^ •<*<ino 



coTt-moi- oosiO- n co^m? 



n CO -^ in o t-- 00 OS o — oi co rf m < 



:2o 



— nM^i-m oi^xoo — neo->»>in o 



•aSriBo-S^-a 888 



■ nco-rr intoi-aoaj o — oieo-^ ino 



440 



ELECTRICITY. 



O 

u 

>> 

u 

a 
•a 

4-1 



^ 






000( 






ooooo 

SO«O00t)iC0 



'8J 

C> 05 J> tc* 



giiisi 



J8 



1 m ifj I 

I (M 00 ( 



O— OiOO 



OOcoeoQO 

Tt> CO ^lO 00 

oeoojiCr-i 



COlftCOiOM in 

0501 ^ T}> rH o 

N O 00«OiO Tf 



O O O lO ift 

O^ O 00 O iC 



i- CO o 00 to-m 



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'QOfO -^ c5 to i> 

I ^ OH>lC -^ CO 



82SSg 

cooJCQ — ■* 






t-^sOt- 



ao -H & -<ti oo ': 



in-*eo(jjw ,-Hi-iT 



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odosqSj- 
t>o?5^ooo 

^^-^■~,-^Qo^>^ 



5D-*lflO0C0 



Tfoocjjooo ooGoa>» 
eooiooDOi iccoTff- 
i-^eo — oo?D uiTOOOJ 



o-*eoc<((M i-Hi-H — 



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•*COM?D«0 Q0000( 



OrfCOOOtM 1-H — rH 



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COiMOSJ>Tji 
1>C^}_?OQO«3_ 

— 'iCeoood 



oo^-<* CO ■<*< j> 
«5 irT -ii'co'w'' 



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ELECTRICITY. 



441 



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442 



ELECTRICITY. 












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ni3jmjo83zig Tii-ii-i !-<«. 



ELECTRICITY. 443 



Wiring for Motor Circuits. 

The size of a motor, which is given in horse power, is the maximum 
power that may be safely developed at the pulley. To obtain this mechan- 
ical power from the electrical energy there is a loss, and consequently there 
is more than one horse power of electrical energy supplied to a motor for 
every mechanical horse power developed at the pully. 

To determine the size of wire for a motor circuit, it is necessary, first, to 
know the number of amperes that will develop the horse power. The elec- 
trical energy is the product of the voltage and the amperes. Therefore, the 
number of amperes required to develop one horse power will depend upon 
the voltage. In determining the number of amperes to develop a horse 
power, allowance must be made for the loss of electrical energy. Motors, 
though of the same type, yet of different sizes, will vary in efficiency, and 
motors of different types transform electrical energy into mechanical 
energy with different degrees of economy. To give the number of amperes 
required to develop the rated horsepower on different sized motors, and 
for motors at different voltages, the following table has been compiled, the 
efficiency of the various sized motors being taken at such a per cent that 
will approximate nearest to the actual conditions. 



Amperes per Motor. 

This table is arranged to show the amperes per motor at the efficiencies 
indicated for various horse powers up to 150, and various voltages up to 
1,200. One column shows the watts per motor, and another shows the 
number of 16-candle power lamps that equal the energy the motor draws 
from the circuit. 

A uniform loss or drop of electrical pressure in service lines should be 
established in every central station supplying current for power purposes. 

The pressure supplied at the motor brushes should be 110 volts for a 
110 volt motor, and for motors of other voltages the pressure should be 
the same as the voltage at which they are rated. This is a point sometimes 
overlooked; the pressure supplied at the motor brushes being several volts 
lower than the pressure for which they are rated. 



444 



ELECTRICITY. 



Amperes per Motor. 

Table originated by George Cutter. Recompiled and enlarged by Thos. G. Grier. 



(^ 


^ 1 


\ 




THE TOP KOW INDICATES VOLTS. 

I 


n 


50 


75 


110 


220 


400 


500 


600 


800 


1,000 


1,200 


Vi 


75 


497 


8.2 


lO.Oi 6.62 


4.5 


2.25 


1.24 


l.OOi .83 


.62 


.497 


.41 


% 


75 


746 


12.4 


14.9 


9.94 


6.78 


3.38 


1.86 


1.48 


1.24 


.93 


.746 


.62 




75 


995 


16.6 


20.0 


13.24 


9.0 


4.5 


2.5 


2.00 


1.66 


1.24 


1. 


.82 


Wi 


80 


1,492 


24.7 


29.8 


19.8 


13.56 


6.78 


3.73 


2.98 


2.48 


1.86 


1.492 


1.24 


2 


80 


1,865 


31.1 


37.31 24.9 


16.9 


8.5 


4.7 


3.8 


3.1 


2.33 


1.9 


1.6 


3 


80 


2,797 


46.6 


55.9I 37.2 


25.4 


12.7 


6.99 


5.59 


4.66 


3.49 


2.797 


2.33 


4 


80 


3,730 


62. 1 


74.6! 49.8 


33.8 


16.9 


9.3 


7.5 


6.2 


4.66 


3.8 


3.1 


5 


80 


4.662 


77.7 


93.2' 62.1 


42.3 


21.1 


11.65 


9.32 


7.77 


5.82 


4.662 


3.88 


7^2 


90 


6.217 


103. 


124.0; 82.9 


56.5 


28.2 


15.54 


12.43 


10.36 


7.77 


6.217 


5.18 


10 


90 


8,288 


138. 


165-0 110. 


75.3 


37.6 


20.72 


16.57 


13.81 


10.36 


8.288 


6.90 


15 


90 


12,433 


207. ^ 


248.0: 165. 


113. 


56.5 


31.08 


24.86 


20.72 


15.54 


12.43 


10.36 


20 


90 


16,578 


276. i 


331.01 221. 


loO. 


75.3 


41.44 


33.15 


27.63 


20.72 


16.57 


13.98 


25 


90 


20.722 


345. i 


414.0! 276. 


188. 


94.1 


51.8 


41.6 


34.5 


25.9 


20.7 


17.2 


30 


90 


24,866 


414. 


497.0 331. 


226. 


113. 


62. 


49.7 


41.4 


31. 


24.8 


20.7 


40 


90 


33.155 


552. i 


663.0 442. 


301. 


150. 


82.8 


66.3 


55.2 


41.4 


33.1 


27.6 


50 


90 


41.444 


690. i 


828.0 552. 


376. 


188. 


103. 


82.8 


69. 


51.8 


41.4 


34.5 


60 


90 


49,733 


828. 


994.0 663. 


452. 


226. 


124. 


99.4 


82.8 


60. 


49.7 


41.4 


70 


90 


58,022 


967. 


1160.0 773. 


527. 


263. 


145. 


116. 


96.7 


72.5 


58. 


48.3 


80 


90 


66.311 


1105. 


1326.0 884. 


602. 


301. 


165. 


132. 


110. 


82.9 


66.3 


55.2 


90 


90 


74.599 

82.888 


1243. 


1491.01 994. 


678. 


339. 


186. 


149. 


124. 


93. 


74.5 


62. 


100 


90 


1381. ! 


1657.01105. 


753. 


376. 


207. 


165. 


K^. 


103. 


82.8 


69. 


120 


90 


99.457 


1657. 


1989.0 1326. 


904. 


452. 


548. 


198. 


165. 


124. 


99. 


82.8 


150 


90 


24.312 


2072. 


2486.0 1657. 


1131. 


565. 


310. 248. 


207. 


155. 


124. 


103. 



Minimum Size Wire for Motor Services. 

A copper conductor will not carry with safety more than a certain 
number of amperes. In the installation of a motor, the service wires 
should always be of sufficient size to carry the number of amperes that 
will be required to develop the maximum rated horse power of the motor. 

It is not advisable in motor circuits to use wire smaller than No. 14 B. 
& S. gauge, as wire of smaller size is liable to be broken. 

The table gives the minimum size wire that should be used for motor 
services. 



ELECTRICITY. 



445 



Minimum Size Wire for Motor Services. 





SIZE WIRE B. & S. GAUGE. 


H. P. 










110 Volts. 


220 Volts. 


500 Volts. 


M> 


14 


14 


14 


1 


14 


14 


14 


2 


10 


14 


14 


3 


8 


12 


14 


4 


6 


10 


14 


5 


5 


8 


14 


^V2 


3 


6 


12 


10 


2 


5 


10 


15 


00 


3 


8 


20 


000 


2 


6 


25 


0000 


1 


5 


30 




00 


4 


40 




000 


2 


50 




0000 


1 









Wiring for Motor Services. 



This table is designed for any loss that may be adopted. The first 
three columns are for the horse power of the motor; the fourth column, the 
ampere capacity required by the motor to develop its rated horse power. 
The amperes in this table are a close approximation to actual practice, 
and so long as the question of efficiency of the motor is a variable one, the 
most valuable electric tables must be based upon approximation derived 
from actual practice. In the other columns of the table is given the dis- 
tance which the various amounts of power can be transmitted on different 
sized wires with a loss of one volt. The five lines at the top of the table 
give information in regard to the wires of different sizes. The safe carrying 
capacity in this table is that which was adopted by the National Electric 
Light Association at Montreal, September 10th, 1891. The method used 
in applying this table is to divide the total distance from the street connec- 
tions to the motor by the number of volts which are to be allowed for loss 
in the service wire. This will give the distance for one volt loss. See in 
what columns opposite the horse power this distance or the nearest 
amount to it is, and this will indicate the size wire required. 



446 



ELECTRICITY. 



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Oi^^lMlM 



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os Oi !> 05 00 o irj Tji Tj< o5 oi w ^ rt r-< -^ T=. •■ >■ ^ -^ ^ 

00-^ i-H 



(M— <t^oooot-inoc5eo«>moTjiooe<5-^ict»-^ 
(M«oinaoow'--*cciooot-Tf<'M'-H05oot»!Cjn'^"<*i 



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cO'^i(tOT»<owt-coo5Ttieo — osoot^oiiftTtiTfi 



oo-<i<ocooQoeooo:!oocDT-nDQOQo^inoi 
ojoccQDW^jifl — oin — oost-^iniCTjioo 
oioiooTT-^eoiMJJiM'-i'-i'-i 



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int^OfQCO(MOIi-ii-ir-l 



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OS 



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1.00 
2.00 
2.30 
4.00 
4.50 


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w8 


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^ 



ELECTRICITY. 



447 



To clearly explain the workings of this table, several examples will be 
given illustrating different conditions: 

Example 1. — A 15-horse power motor, 220 volts, at 400 feet from the 
street connection, with eight volts loss allowed for loss in service wire? 

Eight volts loss in 400 feet distance means a loss of one volt for every 
1/8 of 400 feet, or one volt loss in 50 feet. Referring to the table, we find 
15-horse power under 220 volts can be transmitted 43 feet on No. 3 wire, 
or 55 feet on No. 2 wire. No. 2 being the nearest size is the wire desired. 

Example 2. — Given a 110 volt five-horse power motor, 380 feet, 10 
volts loss? Dividing 380 feet by 10 gives 38 feet for one volt. Referring 
to the table we find 38 feet, opposite five-horse power 110 volt motor, un- 
der No. 5 wire. 

Example 3. — A 30-horse power 500 volt motor, 600 feet from street 
connection, 10 volts loss allowed? Six hundred feet divided by 10 gives 
60 feet for one volt. Sixty-four feet is the nearest to 60 feet, opposite 30- 
horse power motor, and indicates No. 2 wire. 



Simplified Copper Wire Equations. 

BY CHARLES WIRT. 

The following formulae are for commercial copper of97 per cent con- 
ductivity at 75 degrees Fahrenheit. They are correct within a fraction of 
one per cent, and are shorter than the usual form of these equations. 

M=Circular Mils. 
C^^=Circular Inches. 
R= Resistance in Ohms. 
W=: Weight in Pounds. 
L=Length in Feet. 



IIL 

R= 

M 

30000W 

W= 

30000R 

W=C^\x3.03L 

Mx3.03L 
W= 



1000000 



MR 

L= 

11 



L= /WR3000 
W 



C^^=- 



3.03L 
IIL 

M= 

R 

lOOOOOOW 

M= 

3.03Iv 



448 



ELECTRICITY. 



Amount of Drop in Wires with a Given Current. 



AMERICAN 




PALL OP POTENTIAL 


AMERICAN 




FALL or POTENTIAL 


GAUGE, 


CIRCULAR 


IN VOLTS, 


GAUGE, 


CIRCULAR 


IN VOLTS, 


BROWN & 


MILS, (d2) 


PER AMPERE 


BROWN & 


MILS, (d2) 


PER AMPERE 


SHARPES NO. 




PER 1,000 FT. 


SHARPE'SNO. 




PER 1,000 FT. 


0000 


211600.00 


.0505318 


9 


13094.00 


.8165943 


000 


167805.00 


.0637158 


10 


10381.00 


1.03 


00 


133079.40 


.0803503 


11 


8234.00 


1.298521 





105592.50 


.1012593 


12 


6529.90 


1.637494 


1 


83694.20 


.1277612 


13 


5178.40 


2,064841 


2 


66373.00 


.1610920 


14 


4106.80 


2.668524 


3 


52634.00 


.2031469 


15 


3256.70 


3.208450 


4 


41742.00 


.2561507 


16 


2582.90 


4.139673 


5 


33102.00 


.3230183 


17 


2048.20 


5.220349 


6 


26250.50 


.4073238 


IS 


1624.30 


6.582833 


7 


20816.00 


.5136713 


19 


1252.40 


8.537567 


8 


16509.00 


.6476743 


20 


1021.50 


10.46789 



Comparative Table of Diameter and Weight of Copper Wire. 



AMERICAN GAUGE. 


j BIRMINGHAM GAUGE. 


No. Of 


Diameter 


Area in 


Pounds 


No. of 


Diameter 


Area in 


Pounds 


Gauee 


in Mile. 


CM=d2 


per 1,000 ft. 


' Gauee 


in Mils. 


CM=d2 


per 1,000 ft. 


4-0 


4600 


211600 


639.33 


4-0 


454 


206116 


623.925 


3-0 


4096 


167805 


507.01 


3-0 


425 


180625 


546.76 


2-0 


3&i8 


133079 


402.01 


2-0 


380 


144400 


437.107 













340 


115600 


349.928 





3249 


105592 


319.04 


1 


300 


90000 


272.435 


1 


2893 


83694 


252.88 


2 


284 


180656 


244.15 


2 


2576 


66373 


200.54 


3 


259 


67081 


202.965 


3 


2294 


52634 


159.03 


4 


238 


56644 


171.465 










5 


220 


48400 


146.51 


4 


2043 


41742 


126.12 


6 


203 


41209 


124.742 


5 


1819 


33102 


100.01 


7 


180 


32400 


98.076 


6 


1623 


26244 


79.32 


8 


165 


27225 


82.41 


7 


1443 


20822 


62.90 


9 


148 


21904 


66.305 


8 


1285 


16512 


49.88 


10 


134 


17956 


54.354 


9 


1144 


13110 


39.56 


11 


120 


14400 


43.59 


10 


1019 


10381 


31.37 


12 


109 


11881 


35.964 


11 


0907 


8226 


24.88 * 


13 


095 


9025 


27.319 


12 


0808 


6528 


19.73 


14 


083 


6889 


20.853 


13 


0722 


5184 


15.65 


15 


072 


5184 


15.692 


14 


0641 


4110 


12.41 


16 


065 


4225 


12.789 


15 


0571 


3260 


9.84 


17 


058 


3364 


10.18 


16 


0508 


2581 


7.81 


18 


049 


2401 


7.268 


17 


0452 


2044 


6.19 


19 


042 


1764 


5.340 


18 


0403 


1624 


4.91 










19 


0359 


1253 


3.78 


20 


035 


1225 


3.708 


20 


032 


1024 


4.09 


21 


032 


1024 


3.099 


21 


0285 


820 


2.45 


22 


028 


784 


2.373 


22 


0253 


626 


1.94 


23 


025 


625 


1.892 


23 


0226 


510 


1.54 


24 


022 


484 


1.465 


24 


0201 


404 


1.22 


25 


020 


400 


1.211 


25 


0179 


320 


.97 


26 


018 


324 


.9807 


26 


0159 


254 


.77 


27 


016 


256 


.7749 


27 


0142 


201 


.61 


28 


014 


1% 


.5933 


28 


0126 


159 


.48 


29 


013 


169 


.5116 


29 


0113 


127 


.38 


30 


012 


144 


.4359 


30 


010 


100 


.20 


31 


010 


100 


.3027 


31 


0089 


79 


.24 


32 


009 


81 


.2452 


32 


0079 


63 


.19 


33 


008 


64 


.1937 


33 


007 


49 


.15 


34 


007 


49 


.1483 


34 


006 


36 


.12 










35 


0056 


28 


.10 










36 


005 


25 


.08 


35 


005 


25 


.07568 


37 


0045 


18 


.06 










38 


004 


16 


.05 


33 


004 


16 


.04843 



ELECTRICITY. 



449 



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ELECTRICITY. 



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ELECTRICITY. 



451 



Units of Measurement. 

As the science of electricity has adopted the more complete and scien- 
tific metric s\-stem in the greater part of its work, we give the metric sys- 
tem and its equivalents in the units now in common use, also the table of 
decimal equivalents of the fractions of an inch. 



Decimal ^Equivalents and the Metric System. 

TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF 8THS, 16THS, 32dS AND 64tHS OF 

AN INCH. 



For use in connection with the micrometer caliper. 



8ths. 


3^2 = .28125 


ht = 


.296875 


^ = .125 


11= .34375 


It =3 


.328125 


% = .250 


11= .40625 


23 

fi4 


.359375 


% = .375 


\% = .46875 


64 = 


.390625 


3^ = .500 


i|= .53125 


27 

6 4 


.421875 ■ 


% = .625 


kt = .59375 


li = 


.453125 


% = .750 


-U = .65625 




.484375 


Vs = .875 


II = .71875 


33 =^ 


.515625 


16ths. 


ll = .78125 


h = 


.546875 


i^e = .0625 
i«6 = .1875 
i% = .3125 
/g =: .4375 
i»6 = -5625 
11- = .6875 
11 =.8125 
11 = .9375 


11 _ .84375 
Ifzzr .90625 
|i = . 96875 

64ths. 
J4 = .015625 


37 _ 
6 4 

11 = 
11 = 

n = 
a = 


.578125 
.609375 
.640625 
.671875 
.703125 
.734375 


ii = .046875 
g5^ = .078125 
g7^ = . 109375 


i^ = 
i^ = 

i^ = 


.765625 

.796875 
.828125 


32ds. 


e»4 = . 140625 


i^ = 


.859375 


3*2 = .03125 


n = . 171875 


li = 


.890625 


3^ = .09375 


»i = .203125 


11 = 


.921875 


i^ = .15625 


II = .234375 




.953125 


3^5 = .21875 


H= 256625 


ii= 


.984375 



452 ELKCTRICITY. 



Quintal 


= 


100,000 = 


Myriagram 


= 


10,000 = 


Kilogram or Kile 


= 


1,000 = 


Hectogram 


= 


100 = 


Dekagram 


= 


10 = 


Gram 


= 


1 = 


Decigram 


= 


.1 = 


Centigram 


= 


.01 = 


Milligram 


= 


.001 = 



The Metric System.— Weights. 

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. 

Weight of what quan- 
Names. No. Grams. tity of water at Avoirdupois 

maximum density. Weight. 
Millier or tonneau = 1,000,000 = 1 cubic meter = 2204.6 pounds. 

1 hectoliter = 220.46 pounds. 
10 Hters = 22.046 pounds. 

1 liter = 2.2046 pounds. 

1 deciliter = 3.5274 oimces. 
10 c. centimet. = 0.3527 ounce. 
1 c. centimet. = 15.432 grains. 
.1 c. centimet. = 1.5432 grain. 
10 c. millimet. = 0.1543 grain. 
1 c. millimet. =: 0.0154 grain. 

Measures of I^etigth. 

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. 
Myriameter = 10,000 meters = 6.2137 miles. 
Kilometer = 1,000 meters = 0.62137 m. or 3.280 ft. 10 in. 
Hectometer = 100 meters = 328 feet and 1 inch. 
Dekameter = 10 meters = 393 7 inches. 

Meter = 1 meter = 39.37 inches. 

Decimeter = .1 of a meter = 3.937 inches. 
Centimeter = .01 of a meter = 0.3937 inch. 
Millimeter =.001 of a meter = 0.0394 inch. 

Measures of Surface. 

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. 
Hectare = 10,000 square meters = 2.471 acres. 
Arc = 100 square meters = 119.6 square yards. 

Centarc = 1 square meter = 1.550 square inches. 

Measures of Capacity. 

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalents in Denominations in use. 
Names. No. Liters. Cubic Measure. Dry Measure. Wine Measure. 

Kilohter = 1,000 = 1 cubic meter = 1.308 cubic yards = 264.17 galls. 
Hectoliter = 100 = .1 cubic meter = 2 bush. 3.35 pks. = 26.417 galls. 
Decaliter = 10 = 10 c. decimeters = 9.08 quarts. = 2.8417 galls. 

Liter = 1= Ic.decimeter = 0.908 quart. =1.0567 qrts. 

Deciliter = .1= .Ic.decimeter = 6.1022 cubic in. = 0.845 gill. 
Centiliter = .01 = 10c. centimeters= 6102 cubic in. =0.388fluidoz 
Millihter = .001 = Ic. centimeter = 0.061 cubic in. = 0.27 fluid dr. 



ELECTRICITY. 453 



Dynamo Electric Machinery. 

In the practical operation of dynamo electric machinery there are two 
expressions commonly used to denote different phases of the current, name- 
ly, "direct current" and "alternating current." Both of them at the 
present time have about an equal share in the transmission of electrical 
energy, the direct current being used for arc lighting and for both central 
stations and isolated work in incandescent lighting, and also for street rail- 
way and power purposes. The alternating current is used to a very slight 
extent in all of the above except in the field of central station lighting, where 
it occupies a most prominent position. 

Direct Current: The meaning of the expression "direct current" is 
almost explained in the name itself. The current is always traveling in 
the same direction, the positive wire always being positive and the negative 
always being negative. 

Alternating Current: In alternating current working the current is 
rapidly reversed, rising and falling in a succession of impulses or waves. 
Electricity is, in fact, oscillating backwards and forwards through the con- 
ductor or conducting line with enormous rapidity, under the influence of a 
rapidly reversing electromotive force. The adjectives "alternate," "oscil- 
latory," "periodic," "undulatory" and "harmonic," have all been used to 
describe such currents. The term "wave currents" perhaps gives a better 
expression. The properties of alternate currents differ somewhat from 
those of direct or continuous currents. They are affected not only by the 
resistance of the circuit, but also by its inertia or self-induction, which di- 
minishes the amplitude of the waves, retards their phase and smooths them 
down in general. 

Induction. 

Induction is one of the marked peculiarities of electrical action. In 
popular language it may be compared as somewhat similar to the radiation 
of heat. The leakage of electricity, on account of imperfect insulation or 
the act of leaving the conductor and jumping through the air in search of 
another conductor, differs from induction. When a current of electricity is 
passing through a conductor, in the ordinary manner, there is an influence 
supposedto be encircling the conductor in whirling rings, producing mag- 
netic and electrical effects by induction. 

The magnetic effect can be shown by passing an electrically insulated 
conductor, in a vertical direction, through a small hole in a sheet of paper 
and sprinkling iron filings on the paper round the wire. The instant a 
direct current of electricity is passed through the wire, the iron filings obey 
the unseen power and become magnetic, arranging themselves in regular 
circles around the wire. 



454 ELECTRICITY. 



When the -wires are laid side by side and each of them is electrically in- 
sulated, in the ordinary way, and when one of these wires has an electrical 
current passed through it, the other one shows some of this influence by 
means of delicate instruments or by other practical effects. 

When an electrical current is produced in a closed conductor, by passing 
it in a certain direction through a magnetic field, we have another one of 
the effects of induction. In fact, this is especially the fundamental prin- 
ciple of the dynamo. 

When an electrical current is passed through an electrically insulated 
conductor, coiled around a mass of iron, magnetism is produced by induc- 
tion. This is the active principle which is so largely utilized in magnetizing 
the iron encasing the armatures of our dynamo. Other illustrations 
might be given to show the skill used in practical electrical affairs, either 
in using this general principle or showing the ingenious methods taken to 
prevent its interference with the satisfactory working of electrical currents. 
A principle so active as induction has often puzzled our most skillful elec- 
tricians in its successful management. 

In static electricity the peculiarities of induction have been longer under 
the eye of electricians, and were perhaps more fully understood. In dyna- 
mic electricity, since such largely important industries are depending on the 
mastering of this manifestation of force in its various forms, the study has 
assumed immense commercial importance and utility. As experiment is the 
only royal road to scientific knowledge, we are happy to know that there is 
a little army of some of the brightest men in the world constantly at work 
experimenting in the entire electrical field. They are yearly giving up to us 
the valuable products of their labor. Tesla, of late, seems to be one of the 
most prolific experimenters in inductive electrical effects produced by alter- 
nating currents of enormous frequency. What he has discovered may only 
be a foretaste of what may yet be in store for the world. 

When an electrical current flows through an electrically insulated con- 
ductor, the magnetic force with which that wire is made alive does not seem 
to be in the wire itself, but in the space surrounding it. By giving our im- 
agination a little play, we may say, "the live wire has two souls." The 
electrical is contained in the conductor, entangled among its molecules; 
while the magnetic one, seeming even more spiritual, hovers around outside 
of the conductor. In all probability the relationship between the two is very 
close. Each of these manifestations of force is easily and quickly changed 
from one to the other by methods familiar to electricians. 

Converters : The utility of converters, or transformers, now so exten- 
sively used in connection with the alternating current for incandescent light- 
ing, depends on induction. The electric energy which is sent from the dyna- 
mo into the street mains does its work in thelamps,"although the conductors 
have no direct connection with the lamps. In fact, these conductors are 
electrically insulated; They enter and leave the converter, depending on in- 
duction in the converter for the execution of their duty in making the carbons 
glow. This mysterious outside influence is utilized by grouping coils of wire 



ELECTRICITY. 



455 



connected with the dynamos with another group, in close neighborhood, 
leading to the lamps. These respective groups of wire are made effective by 
the magnetic action of bundles of soft iron around which the wires are coiled. 
By this method electrical energy, of a very high pressure, is transferred on 
the street by comparatively small and hence cheap wires. And what is of 
immense importance, the pressure is reduced at the pleasure of the construc- 
tor so as to suit the capacity of the lamps for endurance, and at the same 




FIG. A.— SERIES WOUND 



time making the current harmless to human hfe. We are told that this 
transformation is made at a loss of only about four per cent. 

While only touching the surface of this interesting study, we acknowl- 
edge its subtleties, yet we can all comprehend and utilize some of its effects. 
The task for the mass of us engaged in electrical industries is not in the field 
of discovery, but it requires all our mental energy in the effort to grasp an 
understanding of some of the laws so fully described for us by our electri- 



456 



ELECTRICITY. 



cians. We can see the dust raised ahead by our leaders, and all we can do is 
to keep within hailing distance of the procession and encourage our foot- 
sore comrades engaged with us in asking questions of nature. 



The Dynamo. 

The dynamo is a machine for generating electrical current. There are 
two classes in general use, the direct current and the alternating-current 




FIG. B. — COMPOUND WOUND. 



dynamo. The direct-current dynamo may be sub-divided or classed as 
follows: the constant potential and the constant current. The constant 
potential dynamo is used for incandescent lighting and for power purposes. 
The constant current dynamo is usually series wound, that is, the field 



ELECTRICITY. 



457 



magnets and the armature unite in series, a diagrammatic representation 
of which is given in figure A. The incandescent dynamo, or rather the 
constant-potential dynamo, is either compound wound or shunt wound, 
as shown in diagrams B and C. The first three diagrams show machines 
which are self-exciting; diagram D shows a dynamo which has its fields ex- 
cited from some external source. 

All dynamos are based upon the discovery made by Faraday in 1831, 




FIG. C— SHUNT WOUND. 



that electric currents are generated in conductors by moving them in a mag- 
netic field. An electromotive force is produced in a conductor when it is 
moved in a field of magnetic force in such a way as to cut the lines of force 
in a direction at right-angles to the direction of the action, and at right- 
angles to the direction of the lines of force. This induced electromotive 
force is proportional to the intensity of the magnetic field, and to the length 
and velocity of the moving conductor. According to Ohm's well known 



458 



ELECTRICITY. 



law, the flow of electricity in this conductor is directly proportional to this 
electromotive force and inversely proportional to the resistance of the con- 
ductor. #" 

Alternaters. 

Alternating dynamos will be classed in three sorts : 

1st. Those with stationary field magnets and rotating armature. The 
Westinghouse Electric Co., the Ft. Wayne Jenney Co., the Thomson-Hous- 
ton Co., and the National Electric Co. all manufacture alternating current 
dynamos of this type. 




FIG. D. — SEPARATELY EXCITED. 



2d. Those with rotating field magnets and stationary armature. This 
type of machine is manufactured by the Brush Electric Co. 

3d. Those with both field magnet part and armature part stationary, 
the amount of magnetic induction from the latter through the former being 
caused to vary or alternate in direction by the revolution of appropriate 
pieces of iron called "inductors." The Royal Co. is experimenting with a 
machine of this make. 

Alternaters are also either series or compound wound ; but all alternat- 
ing current dynamos in commercial use to day in the United States are 
e?tcitedby a direct current machine ; that is, a small machine is connected to 



ELECTRICITY. 459 



the coils around the fields, and a direct current produces the magnetism 
necessary for the operation of the machine. All machines that are used 
for lighting generate a simple two phase current, which means that the 
current rapidly oscillates or changes direction. 

There are alternating current machines manufactured for the purpose of 
driving motors which generate what is called a "multi-phase," and in these 
machines there are several currents whose w^ave length is the same, yet one 
lags behind the other. 

In all alternatersthe electromotive force rises and falls in a rapid periodic 
fashion, a wave of electricity being forced through the circuit first in one 
direction, then in the other, .with great rapidity. The time taken for one 
complete alternation to and fro of the current is called one period. The 
frequency used in practice variates between 40 periods per second and 100, 
or sometimes 150 periods per second. 



Armatures. 

Armature Cores: The cores are always luminated, being constructed 
of either sheet-iron discs, (2d) iron ribbon, or (3d) iron wire. For drum 
armatures and elongated rings, discs stamped out from soft sheet iron are 
almost universal. The usual thickness is from 40 to 80 thousandths of an 
inch. To obtain the best results, these discs are lightly insulated one from 
the other, one side usually being covered with thin varnished paper, or the 
face of the disc being enameled. When iron wire is used, it is varnished or 
slightly oxidized on its surface and taped externally. The Brush arc light 
machines use the Gramme ring almost exclusively. The Edison incandescent 
dynamos offer an example as to the drum armature, more frequently known 
as the Siemens. 

Balancing of Armatures. 

It is very needful that armatures should be properly balanced, otherwise 
they will set up injurious vibrations in. running. Most makers test their 
armatures for balance by laying the journals on two parallel metal rails, or 
knife edges, and notice whether the armature remains in any position with- 
out tending to roll. Armatures should be balanced with the pulleys on 
them. 

Binding Wires. 

After an armature has been wound, the conductors must be secured in 
place by a number of external bands. These must be very strong ; as, 
should they become loose through the speed of the armature, the armature 
will be burnt or short-circuited, 



460 ELECTRICITY. 



Commutators. 

The insulation between the segments of a commutator should be very 
good, and the commutator should always be kept scrupulously clean. Vas- 
eline makes a very good lubricator for a commutator, a very little bit being 
applied to it, preferably by one's finger. 



Brushes. 

The kind of a brush most frequently used for receiving currents from 
the collector commutator, consists of a quantity of straight copper wires, 
or ribbons, soldered together at one end and held in a suitable clamp. The 
number of conducting points secured by this method is advantageous in 
reducing the sparking. Carbon brushes are coming into use of late to a 
great extent, the sparking from a carbon brush being much less than with 
the use of copper brushes. In setting brushes, they should be set so that 
they are diametrically opposite; and on all commutators center-punch 
marks will be found, so that the brushes can be set. The brushes should be 
held firmly and joined wnth a good metallic contact with their circuit. 
Brushes must be held to make contact at the proper angle to the surface of 
the commutator. Brushes must bear with proper pressure upon the com- 
mutator — if too light, they will jump and spark; if too heavy, they will cut 
the commutator into ruts. The object of a number of brushes on each side 
is that, in adjusting the brushes to obviate the sparking when the machine 
is running, the circuit will not be broken if one brush should be lifted from 
ofi" the commutator. Insulated handles should be provided for all dynamos 
working above 100 volts, so that the brushes may be raised and adjusted 
without risk of shocks. It is always well to see that the insulation of the 
brush, or the brush and brush holders together, is very thorough, as bad 
insulation at this point will cause considerable trouble. Dirt on the com- 
mutators or armature is one of the greatest difficulties to be guarded against 
in the proper operation of the dynamo or motor. 



Klectric Motors. 

•'Dynamo electric machinery" is a term used to mean machinery for 
converting energy in the form of mechanical power into energy in the form 
of electric currents, or vice-versa. The electric motor is the inverse of the 
dynamo, its function being to convert the energy of electric currents 
into the energy of mechanical motion. An electric motor is an appa- 
ratus which does the mechanical work at the expense of electrical 
energy. Every one knows that a magnet will attract the opposite pole of 
another magnet and will pull it around. We also know that every mag- 



ELECTRICITY. 461 



net, placed in a magnetic field, tends to turn around and set itself along the 
lines of force. It is not, therefore, difficult to understand that very soon 
after the invention of the electro-magnet, v%^hich gave us for the first time a 
magnet whose power was under control, a number of ingenious persons con- 
ceived that it was possible to construct an electro-magnetic engine in which 
an electro-magnet placed in the magnetic field, should be pulled around, and 
that the rotation should be kept up continuously by cutting off or reversing 
the current at theproper moment. The first electro-motor which could be con- 
sidered a practical success was designed bj' Jacobi for an electric boat in 
1883. Professor Henry had designed one as early as 1823, exhibiting a 
motor which, though a mere toy, had all the elements of the motor of the 
present day. 

Counter J^lectromotive Force. 

Two points which are of vital importance are the propelling drag and 
the counter electromotive force. The first is that the real driving force,, 
which propels the revolving armature is the drag which the magnetic field 
exerts upon the armature wires through which the current is flowing. In 
the generator the drag acts in the direction which opposes rotation, and is, 
in fact, the counter force or reaction against the driving force. In a motor 
the drag is the driving force and produces rotation. Let it be remembered 
that wherever a current flows through some portion of the circuit in which 
there is an electromotive force, the current will there either receive or give 
up energy, according to whether the electromotive force acts with the cur- 
rent or against it. The existence of this counter electromotive force is of 
the utmost importance in considering the action of the motor, because upon 
the existence and magnitude of this counter electromotive force depends the 
degree with which any given motor enables us to utilize electric energ^'that 
is supplied to it in the form of an electric current. In fact, this counter 
electromotive force is an absolute and necessary factor in the power of the 
motor. The counter electromotive force is proportional to the velocity, 
and acts as a check to the flow of the current through the armature. An 
armature running with a light load will generate a very high electromotive 
force; and although the actual resistance ofthewirein the armature is 
very low, due to the backing up, as it were, of this counter electromotive 
force, only a small portion of current can flow through. As it requires cur- 
rent through the armature to do work, it will be easih' understood that as 
the load is thrown on the motor, this counter electromotive force wnll grad- 
ualh' fall, allowing more current to flow through the armature. 

Motors are made in shunt, compound wound and series wound. The 
compound wound and series wound motors are used on constant potential 
circuits, in which the electromotive force is constant and the quantity of 
current varies as the load. The series motors are used principally upon the 
arc light circuits, where the current is constant and the diflerence of pressure 
between the brushes of the motor varies with the load. Series motors re- 
quire a governor, so that the speed can be constant. The governors are 



462 ELECTRICITY. 



usually made somewhat similar to the ball governors used on throttle en- 
gines. They work a lever which cuts in and out the sections of the fields, 
the principle of the governor being that the fields are strengthened or weak- 
ened accordingly, as the load increases or decreases. Shunt and compound 
wound motors which are in commercial use to-day are practically self-gov- 
erning within the limits of their rated capacity. 



General Remarks on Motors. 

In locating a motor, always make allowance for the proper length of 
belt. A. horizontal belt is most desirable. Never, when it can be avoided, 
place the motor directly above or below the shaft to be driven. This 
necessitates a tight belt and a useless and injurious strain upon the arma- 
ture shaft. When circumstances will permit, place the motor so that the 
angle of belt will not be more than 45 degrees. It is better to transmit the 
power from the motor by an open belt. This is easily accomplished, as 
most motors can be made to run in either direction. 



The Kind of Belt to be Used. 

It is found in practice that a thin, soft leather belt, of the width of the 
pulley which is furnished with the motor, will transmit the power of the 
motor for which it is intended without being drawn tight enough to cause 
any sign of heating or slipping. If it is found to do either, it is a sure sign 
that the machine is doing more work than it ought or the belt is too tight. 
A solid and level foundation, preferably a wooden bench or platform, sev- 
eral feet above the level of the floor will give the best results. The starting 
box, or rheostat, should always be set up and connected at a place conven- 
ient for getting at it. If the bearings are self-lubricating, the old oil 
should be drawn out of the box at least once a day. In setting brushes, 
make allowance for the end chase of the shaft, and set them far enough 
away from the end of the commutator, so that there w^ill be no possibility 
of contact between either brush and the commutator head. 



Starting a Motor. 

See that the bearings are properly lubricated, wipe the ends of brushes, 
and adjust them to the proper contact on the commutator. See that the 
lever on the rheostat, or starting box, is turned to the extreme end, so that 
the resistance will all be thrown in circuit. Close the main-line switch. This 
charges the fields. Then start the motor by moving the lever slowly but 
steadily, gradually cutting out the resistance in the armature circuit. Never 
allow the lever to remain oil any intermediate pin or lift it off of the pin, 
but allow it to make contact with each pin as it is moved along. 



ELECTRICITY, 



463 



The Size of Belts. 

As electric motors are coming into use more and more, the question as 
to what size belt is required freqiiently arises. The layman relies upon the 
intelligence of his engineer or the salesman from whom he purchased his 
machinery. 

The required size of a belt depends upon the speed at which it must 
travel, and the horse-power it must transmit at that speed. For those 
who are using machinery more or less in their business, yet do not pay any 
particular attention to this question, the following table is given, which 
will enable one to decide upon the size of belt to use. 

SINGLE LEATHER. 



BELT 
SPEED. 


600 


1200 


1^00 


2400 


3000 


3600 


4200 


4800 

H. P. 


5400 


6000 


WIDTH 


H.P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


OF BELT 


















9 




lin. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


10 


2 in. 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


3 in. 


3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


4 in. 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


5 in. 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


6 in. 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


Sin. 


8 


16 


24 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


9 in. 


9 


18 


27 


36 


45 


54 


63 


72 


81 


90 


10 in. 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


12 in. 


12 


24 


36 


48 


60 


72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


14 in. 


14 


28 


42 


56 


70 


84 


98 


112 


126 


140 


16 in. 


16 


32 


48 


64 


80 


96 


112 


128 


144 


160 



DOUBLE LEATHER. 



BELT 
SPEED. 


400 


800 


1200 


1600 


2000 


2400 


2800 


3200 


3600 


4000 


5000 


WIDTH 
OF BELT 


H.P. 


H.P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. p. 


4 in. 


4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


50 


6 in. 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


75 


8 in. 


8 


16 


24 


32 


40 


48 


56 


64 


72 


80 


100 


10 in. 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


60 


70 


80 


90 


100 


125 


12 in. 


12 


24 


36 


48 


60 


72 


84 


96 


108 


120 


150 


16 in. 


16 


32 


48 


64 


80 


96 


112 


128 


144 


160 


200 


20 in. 


20 


40 


60 


80 


100 


120 


140 


160 


180 


200 


250 


24 in. 


24 


48 


72 


96 


120 


144 


168 


192 


216 


240 


300 


30 in. 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


210 


240 


270 


300 


330 


36 in. 


36 


72 


108 


144 


180 


216 


252' 


288 


334 


370 


450 


40 in. 


40 


80 


120 


160 


200 


240 


280 


320 


360 


400 


500 



464 ELECTRICITY. 



Stopping a Motor. 

First open the cut-out in the main Hne or main line switch, then move 
the lever of the cutting box back to the point where all the resistance will be 
thrown into the armature circuit, so that the motoris all ready for starting. 
Sometimes a motor is connected up to machiner}^ that will make the motor 
revolve backward for several turns after it is stopped. In such a case the 
brushes should be lifted oif the commutator, to avoid their being caught in 
the segments when the armature revolves in the wrong direction. 



Turning a Commutator. 

When a commutator becomes rough and needs turning down, take the 
armature out and put it into a lathe. Choose a tool with a good clean, 
sharp edge and good clearance. ' Run it at a lively speed, as a low speed 
used for steel will not work so well. After turning it off enough, take a 
good sharp file and make it true. This should be done very carefully. Then 
look over the divisions carefully and see if there are any chips which project 
over the mica. If there are, remove them with the point of a knife, not 
cutting into the mica any more than necessary. Never use emery cloth to 
smooth the commutator, as it will charge into the copper and stay 
there, cutting away the brushes and causing much trouble. If anything 
of the kind is to be used, take fine sand-paper. 

Detail Apparatus and Instruments. 

In operating an electric light or power dynamo, it is essential that they 
have indicating and regulating devices, so that the engineer can tell what 
pressure or voltage his machine is generating and also the amount of cur- 
rent. The instrument used for determining the voltage or pressure of a 
machine is called the 



Volt Meter. 

Volt meters are made upon two principles. One of these is based upon 
the contraction and elongation of a wire, due to the variations in temper- 
ature caused by an electrical current traversing it. Yolt meters built upon 
this principle are gradually coming into use on alternating current circuits, 
but are not as yet a commercial commodity. The volt meter which is based 
npon the principle of magnetism is the one commonly used, and is the one 
that the engineer is the most likely to come in contact with. The simplest 
form of this style of volt meter is a solenoid of a high resistance, which draws 
or attracts a soft iron core against gravity or a spring, which in turn indi- 



ELECTRICITY. 465 



cates the extent of its attraction b\' means of a pointer, this pointer show- 
ing on a graduated scale the number of volts acting upon the instrument. 
A volt meter is alwa\'S placed in multiple, that is, between the positive and 
negative poles of the machine whose voltage it is to indicate. A volt indi- 
cator or volt meter that is used by some manufacturers simply indicates by 
its pointer one predetermined voltage. If the pointer moves to either side 
of this point, resistance is thrown into the fields or taken out of the helds, 
as circumstances may demand it, so as to regulate the pressure of the ma- 
chine to such a point as will bring the pointer back to the center of the 
scale. More elaborate methods of employing the magnetic properties of a 
currenttoindicatepressure are used, and by referring to the Electrical World 
of the Spring of 1892, in a series of articles, a ver\^ extensive description of 
the manufacture and principles of several of the finest volt meters can be 
seen . 

It is exceedingly important that an incandescent dynamo should be 
provided with a volt meter, as the life of an incandescent lamp is greatly 
lessened if the pressure at which these lamps are operated is increased above 
the rated voltage of the lamp; and without the use of a volt meter on the 
dynamo it is impossible to maintain the proper pressure, as no dynamos 
which are in use commercially can be depended upon to generate a constant 
pressure under varying loads. 

Ampere Meter. 

The ampere meter is an instrument devised to measure the quantity of 
current and is made upon the same plan as the volt meter, excepting that 
the volt meter is an instrument which takes a very small fraction or infin- 
itesimal portion of the current, while in the ampere meter all the current 
passes through the instrument. Dynamos are designed to carry a certain 
number of amperes; and although it is possible, and also frequently the 
case in badly managed stations or plants, to operate a dynamo without 
the ampere meter, it is extremely inadvisable. 



Safety Devices. 

Although the ampere meter will indicate the quantity of current, and 
warn the engineer of an excessive amount of current, it does not act as a 
safe-guard; but devices have been arranged and invented to automatically 
break a circuit in case the quantity of current rises beyond the point 
that is considered safe. The simplest and most universal form of safety de- 
vice or cutout, is the soft metal alloys, which fuse at a low temperature. 
These safety devices are interposed in a circuit, and are of such a size that 
an increase of current be)'ond the amount desired, will melt them and open 
the circuit. These fuse strips should be placed, and are generally placed, 
on a switch-board between the main wires connecting the dynamo and the 

80 



466 ELKCTRICITY. 



instruments on the board, and also are placed where the wires enter a build- 
ing, and wherever the wires sub-divide in the distribution inside of the 
building they are also placed. They are put in the circuit running to mo- 
tors to protect the motors, and in fact wherever a branch runs to feed any 
device with an electrical current, these safety devices, or, as they are more 
commonly called, cutouts, are interposed in the circuit. 

A more rehable, and at the same time more expensive, cutout, based 
upon the principle of magnetism, is used where motors or machinery of a 
valuable nature require great precautions. These magnetic cutouts are 
solenoids, which attract a small armature that is held against this attract- 
ion by a tension spring. If the current reaches beyond a certain strength, 
the tension of the spring is overcome, and draws the armature in, thus 
closing the circuit through a very fine copper or fusible wire, and at the same 
time opening the main circuit. The small wire almost instantly melts, and 
the circuit is opened. This cutout is extremely useful on motors that are 
supplied from street railway circuits, as it acts as a lightning arrester as 
well as a cutout. 



I/ightning Arrester. 



A great source of annoyance and danger to central stations are the in- 
juries caused by lightning coming in the station from the outside lines. In- 
struments have been devised, known as lightning arresters, to obviate this 
difficulty and danger. These instruments are devised so as to cause a direct 
and free passage of the lightning to the ground, without, at the same time, 
grounding the line and allowing the dynamo current to follow the light- 
ning. The simplest form of lightning arrester is made of five copper plates 
— two small copper plates being connected to the two poles or wires lead- 
ing out from the dynamo, and these two small plates being connected with 
longer ones by safety fuses [these two longer plates having their edges 
notched], and between these two longer plates is another plate, with its 
edges notched, and the points lying close to the points of the two other 
long plates. This last plate is connected by a wire directh- to the ground. 
When the lightning strikes the wire it comes along and jumps across these 
points to the ground; and if the dynamo current followed the arcing of 
the lightning, as it passed from these points to the ground, the safety fuse 
or soft metal strips would melt. The trouble with this form of lightning 
arrester is that as soon as it is struck by lightning it is necessary to put in 
new strips so that it would be ready for operation. It is alwa\'s exceed- 
ingly difficult and dangerous to put these strips in, and consequently these 
lightning arresters were never very popular with the men running central 
Stations. To obviate this, the Thomson-Houston company invented a 
magnetic lightning arrester for arc light circuits, which was for a long time 
the only successful lightning arrester in commercial use; but today numer- 
ous forms of lightning arresters have been devised; and the most notable 



ELECTRICITY. 467 



and scientific arrester is that devised by Wurtz, and which has been placed 
on the market by the Westinghouse Electric company. The principle 
upon which these lightning arresters have been devised, is that of having 
the h'ghtning discharge to the ground occur in an air-tight compartment, 
and the expansion of the air, when the lightning discharge takes place, 
which is of considerable force, re-sets the instrument for the next discharge. 
Lightning discharges could occur in these arresters indefinitely imtil the ar- 
rester itself was worn out. 

An arrester for pole lines, which is of considerable merit, is the swinging 
ball lightning arrester. This looks like an ordinary coffee-pot without a 
a spout. In the center of the bottom is a brass plate. This plate is con- 
nected with the line; and hanging right above it, in very close proximity 
to it, is a metal ball hung from the top of this pot-shaped metal cover. 
This cover is connected with the ground. If lightning strikes the wire, it 
will pass from the brass plate in the bottom to the metal ball, and direct to 
the ground; but the explosion caused by the spark jumping from the copper 
plate in the bottom to the metal ball causes the ball to swing to one side, and 
so opens the space between the metal ball and the copper plate, thus pre- 
venting the dynamo current from following across. 



Station Switches. 

Switches should be of the knife or jaw pattern, and well insulated from 
the ground, and always of a sufficient carrying capacity to prevent the cur- 
rent from heating them. The Lang switch is the standard switch for sta- 
tion work, and is used by many of the largest central stations in the 
country. For controlling small circuits, snap switches are used. The 
standard switches for small circuits, from five to ten amperes, is the Paiste 
switch; while for larger circuits, in which the switches are made double 
pole, the Edison and the Bryant switches are known as the standard. Like 
all other devices, as the electrical business has grown, other switches have 
come on the market, of more or less merit; but the switches above named 
will do to illustrate the point required in snap switches. It is necessary to 
make and break a circuit quickl}^, and without drawing an arc. A switch 
which accomplishes this purpose, and at the same time meets the views of 
the engineer as a good mechanical device, answers the purpose as a good 
snap switch. 

Rheostats and Resistance Boxes. 

According to Ohm's law, with a certain pressure the quantity of cur- 
rent would vary inversely as the resistance. In many cases it is desirable to 
regulate the quantity of current, and this is done by means of throwing re- 
sistance in or out of a circuit. The simple name for these contrivances 
would be "Resistance boxes; " but when the resistance box is used for reg- 



468 



ELECTRICITY. 



ulating the pressure of a dynamo, which is done b^" putting it in circuit with 
the field coils, and thereby varying the resistance of the field coils, it is 
called a rheostat. Also, when resistance coils are used for a similar pur. 
pose on street cars, they are called rheostats, and sometimes regulating 
boxes; and when used on motors, either stationary or on street cars, they 
are termed starting boxes. Another name is applied to them very gener. 
ally, and that is regulators. 



Insulation. 

A very important consideration in the installing and operating of a 
plant is the insulation of its various parts from the ground. Well glazed 
porcelain should be used; and wherever safety fuses or porcelain insulators 
are required, precaution should betaken against dampness. Rubber and 
glass are the best two insulators, for their insulating qualities. Mica and 
asbestos offer some advantages for different places. Weatherproof cov- 
ered wire is of very little value as an insulated wire in localities where 
moisture abounds, if the wire is to be used for interior work, such as in 
buildings and factories. 

It is always well for the engineer operating a station, or electric light 
power plant, to ascertain at stated intervals the insulation of his plant. 
This can be done b\' means of a Wheatstone Bridge. Some engineers use a 
magneto for testing out their stations or their lines, but this is not at all 
satisfactory, and is extremely crude. It will only detect very grievous 
faults, while with the Wheatstone Bridge incipient faults can be discovered 
and remedied, thereby saving much labor and sometimes considerable 
money. In almost every tow^n of any size there is at least some one who 
owns a complete testing outfit; and it is money well invested, if it is not 
possible for the station to own a testing outfit itself, to employ these 
parties to test their station. In large cities like New York, Philadelphia 
and Chicago, there are men who make a specialty of this kind of work, and 
a number of the prominent architects employ specialists on their staff of 
superintendents to so inspect the wiring and the electrical insulations in the 
buildings they are constructing. 

The Wheatstone Bridge is a very simple contrivance, when once thor- 
oughly understood. It is simply the action of two currents on a small 
galvanometer, so acting against each other as to neutralize their effects 
and bring the needle of the galvanometer to rest. It is another case where 
Ohm's law comes into pla}'. The Wheatstone Bridge consists of a resist- 
ance box, with a number of known resistances, and so arranged that by 
pulling out and putting in plugs, an indefinite number of resistances within 
a limited amount may be had. These known resistances are put into cir- 
cuit on one side, and the unknown resistances, which is the resistance of 
the insulation, is put in on the other side. You then take out and put in 
plugs, thereby changing the resistance in the box, until the needle of the 



ELECTRICITY. 469 



galvanometer, to which the i-nstrument is connected, comes to rest; and 
when that is so, you know that you have the same resistance in your box 
as YOU have in your insulation. The needle being still, indicates that the 
two resistances are equal and balance each other. The Electrical Supply 
company of Chicago, give in their catalogue a very complete description 
of the Wheatstone Bridge. 



RUIvES ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAI/ EI<ECTRIC 
I,IGHT ASSOCIATION. 



Report of the N. E. I/. A. Committee on Tabulating Wiring 
and Insurance Rules. 

CLASS A. — CENTRAL STATIONS. 
FOR LIGHT OR POWER. 

These Rules also apply to Dynamo Rooms in Isolated Plants, connected 

with or detached from buildings used for other purposes. 

Also to all varieties of apparatus, of both 

high and low potential. 

Generators or Motors — Must be : 

1 . Located in a dry place. 

2. Insulated on floors or base-frames w^hich must be kept filled to pre- 
vent absorption of moisture, and also kept clean and dry. 

3. Not exposed to flying or combustible materials. 

4. Each covered with a waterproof cover when not operating. 

In no case must a generator be placed in a room where any hazardous 
process is carried on, such as the working-room of a cotton, jute, flax, 
woolen or flour mill. 

Care and Attendance.— A competent man must be kept on duty in 
the room where generators are operating. 

Oily waste must be kept in metal cans and removed daily. 

Conductors — From generators, switchboards, rheostats or other in- 
struments, and thence to outside lines, conductors must be : 

1. In plain sight. 

2. Whollj' on non-combustible insulators, such as glass or porcelain. 

3. Separated from contact with floors, partitions or walls through 
which they may pass, by non-combustible insulating tubes. 

4. Kept rigidly so far apart that they cannot come in contact. 

5. Covered with non-inflammable insulating material sufficient to pre- 
vent accidental contact. 

6. Ample in carrjnng capacity to prevent heating. (See Capacity of 
Wires table.) 

7. Connected by splices or joints equal in carr\'ing capacity to the 

1. Presented and adopted by tlie National Electric Light Association, Mon- 
treal, P. Q., Sept. 10, 1891. 



470 ELECTRICITY. 

conductors themselves, soldered if necessary to make them efficient and per- 
manent. 

8. When under floors or in distributing towers, placed in spaces ample 
for inspection and ventilation, and provided with special insulating cover- 
ing. 
Switchboards— Must be: 

1. So placed as to make it impossible to communicate fire to surround- 
ing combustible material ; accessible from all sides when the connections are 
on the back ; or may be placed against a brick or stone wall when the con- 
nections are entirely' on the face. 

2. Kept free from moisture. 

3. Made of non-combustible material, or of hard wood, filled to pre- 
vent absorption of moisture. 

4. Equipped with bars and wires in accordance with rules 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 
and 7 for placing interior conductors. 

Resistance Boxes and Equalizers — Must be : 

1. Equipped with metal or non-combustible frames. 

2. Treated as sources of heat. 

3. Placed on the switch or a distance of a foot from combustible mate- 
rial, or separated therefrom by asbestos or cement. 

Lightning Arresters— Must be : 

1. Attached to each side of every overhead circuit connected with the 
station. 

2. In plain sight. 

3. On the sw^itchboard or in an equally accessible place, away from 
combustible material. 

4. Connected with at least two earths by separate wires of large size. 

5. So constructed as not to maintain an arc after the discharge is 
passed. 

Testing. — All series and alternating circuits must be tested every two 
hours while in operation to discover any leakage to earth, abnormal in 
view of the potential and method of operation. 

All multiple arc low potential systems (300 volts or less) must be pro- 
vided with an indicating or detecting device, readily attachable, to afford 
easy means of testing where the station operates perpetually. 

Data obtained from all tests must be preserved for examination by in- 
surance inspectors. 

CLASS B.— ARC (sERIEs) SYSTEMS. 

Overhead Conductors. — All outside overhead conductors (including ser- 
vices) must be : 

1. Covered with some insulating material, not easily abraded. 

2. Firmly secured to xjroperly insulated and substantially built sup- 
ports, all the wires having an insulation equal to that of the conductors 
they donfine. 

3. So placed that moisture cannot form a cross-connection between 
them, not less than a foot apart and not in contact with any substance 
other than proper insulating supports. 

4. At least seven feet above the highest point of flat roofs and at least 



ELECTRICITY. 471 



one foot above the ridge of pitched roofs, over which they pass, or to which 
they are attached. 

5. Protected whenever necessary, in view of possible accidents to con- 
ductors or supports, from possibihty of contact with other conducting 
wires or substances to which current may leak, by dead insulated guard 
irons or wires. Special precautions of this kind must be taken where sharp 
angles occur, or where any wires might possibly come in contact with 
electric light or power wires. 

6. Provided with petticoat insulators of glass or porcelain. Porcelain 
knobs and rubber hooks are prohibited. 

7. So spliced or joined as to be both mechanically and electrically se- 
cure without solder. They must then be soldered to insure preservation 
and covered with an insulation equal to that on the conductors. 

The following formula for soldering fluid is approved : 

Saturated Solution of Zinc 5 parts. 

Alcohol 4 parts. 

Glycerine 1 part. 

Conductors should not be run over, or attached to, buildings other 
than those in which light or power is being, or is to be, used, but on sepa- 
rate poles or structures, always easily inspected. 

Service Blocks must be covered over their entire surface with at least 
two coats of waterproof paint and so maintained. 

Telegraph, telephone and similar wires must not be placed on the same 
arm with electric or power wires and should not be placed on the same 
structure or pole. 

interior conductors. 

All Interior Conductors— Must be: 

1. Where they enter buildings from outside terminal insulators to and 
through the walls, covered with waterproof insulation, and must have 
drip loops outside, preferably slanting upward toward the inside and 
bushed with water-proof and non-combustible insulating tube. 

2. Arranged to enter and leave the building through a double contact 
service switch, which will effectually close the main circuit and disconnect 
the interior wires when it is turned "off." The switch must be so con- 
structed that it shall be automatic in its action, not stopping between 
points when started, and prevent an arc between the points under all cir- 
cumstances: it must indicate on inspection whether the current be "on" or 
"off," and be mounted on a non-combustible base in a position where it can 
be kept free from moisture, and easy of access to police or firemen. 

3. Always in plain sight, never covered, except in special cases, where 
an armored tube maj^ be necessary. 

4. Covered in all cases with a moisture-proof non-combustible material 
that will adhere to the wire, not fray by friction, and bear a temperature 
of 150° F. without softening. 

5. In dry places, kept rigidly apart at least ten inches, except when 
covered (in addition to insulation) by a water-proof, non-conducting and 
non-inflammable tubing, which must be strong enough to protect the insu- 



472 ELECTRICITY. 



lation covering from injury. Conductors thus placed may be run not less 
than three inches apart, and be fastened with staples, under which are 
placed mechanically rigid insulating strips or saddles of greater width than 
the metal of the staple, by which possibility of injury to the tube may be 
prevented. 

6. In damp places, attached to glass or porcelain insulators, and sepa- 
rated ten inches or more. 

7. When passing through walls, floors, timbers or partitions, treated 
as in cental stations under like conditions. 

lamps and other devices. 

Arc Lamps Must be in Every Case: 

1. Carefully isolated from inflammable material. 

2. Provided at all times with a glass globe surrounding the arc, se- 
curely fastened upon a closed base. No broken or cracked globes may 
be used. 

3. Provided with a hand switch, also an automatic switch, that 
will shunt the current around the carbons should they fail to feed prop- 
erly. 

4. Provided with reliable stops to prevent carbons from falling out in 
case the clamps become loose. 

5. Carefully insulated from the circuit, in all their exposed parts. 

6. Where inflammable material is near or under the lamps, provided 
with a wire netting around the globe and a spark arrester above, to pre- 
vent escape of sparks, melted copper or carbon. 

Incandescent lamps on series circuits, having a maximum potential of 
350 volts or over, must be governed by the same rules as for arc lights, 
and each series lamp provided with a hand switch and automatic cut-out 
switch; when lights are in multiple series, such switches and cutouts must 
not control less than a single group of lights. Electro magnetic devices 
for switches are not approved. 

Under no circumstances will incandescent lamps on series circuits be 
allowed to be attached to gas fixtures. 

CLASS C— INCANDESCENT (LOW PRESSURE) SYSTEMS. 

300 VOLTS OR LESS. 

OVERHEAD CONDUCTORS. 

Outside Overhead Co^fDUCTORs— Must be: 

1. Erected in accordance with general rules for Arc (Series) Circuit 
Conductors. 

2. Separaterl not less than six inches, where they enter buildings as 
service conductors, and be provided with a double pole fusible cut-out, as 
near as possible to the point of entrance to the building, and outside the 
walls when practicable. 

UNDERGROUND CONDUCTORS. 

Underground Conductors— Must be: 

1. Provided with suitable protecting devices at the ends of tube or 



ELECTRICITY. 473 



conduit services inside the walls of buildings, as a guard against moisture 
awd injury. 

2. Terminated at a properly placed double pole house cut-out. 

3. Of specially insulated conductors after leaving the tube or conduit, 
and separated by at least ten inches, until the double pole cut-out is 
reached. 

INSIDE WIRING. 

Wire should be so placed that in the event of the failure or deteriora- 
tion of their insulating covering, the conductors will still remain insulated. 

At the entrance of every building there shall be a double pole switch 
placed in the service conductors, whereby the current may be entirely cut 
off. 
Conductors must not be: 

1. Of sizes smaller than No. 16 B. & S , No. 18 B. W. G., No. 3 E. S.G. 

2. Lead or paraffine covered. 

3. Covered with soft rubber tube. 

4. Laid in mouldings of any kind in damp places. 

5. Laid in mouldings with open grooves against the wall or ceiling. 

6. Laid in mouldings where less than half an inch of solid insulation 
is between parallel wires, and between wires and walls or ceilings. 

Mouldings where admissible, must have at least two coatings of water- 
proof paint, or be impregnated with a moisture repellent. 

Cleatwork is not desirable, and cleats must not be used unless: 

1. In a very dry place. 

2. In a place perfectly open for inspection at any time. 

3. The\^ are of porcelain, or well-seasoned wood, filled, to prevent ab- 
sorption of moisture. 

4. They are so arranged that wires of opposite polarity, with a differ- 
ence of potential of 150 volts or less, will be kept at least two and one-half 
inches apart, and that where a higher voltage is used, this distance be in- 
creased proportionately. 

5. There is a backing provided, of wood at least half an inch thick, 
well-seasoned and filled, to prevent absorption of moisture. 

Metal Staples must never be used to fasten conductors unless: 

1. Provided with an insulating sleeve or saddle rigidly attached to 
the metal of the staple, and having such strength and surface as to prevent 
mechanical injury to the insulation of the conductor. 

2. Under conditions in w^hich cleatwork w^ould be acceptable, or 
where driven into a moulding specially adapted for open w^ork. 

special wiring. 
Wherever conductors cross gas, water, or other metallic pipes, or any 
other conductors or conducting material (except arc light wires), they 
should be separated therefrom by some continuous non-conductor at least 
one inch. In crossing arc light wires the low tension conductors must be 
placed at a distance of at least six inches. In wet places an air space must 
be left between conductors and pipes in crossing, and the former must be 



474 ELECTRICITY. 



run in such a way that they cannot come in contact with the pipe accident- 
ally. Wires should be run over all pipes upon which condensed moisture rs 
likely to gather, or which by leakage might cause trouble on a circuit. 
In breweries, dye houses, paper and pulp mills, or other buildings specially 

liable to moisture, all conductors, except where used for pendants, 

must be: 

1. Separated at least six inches. 

2. Carefully put up. 

3. Supported by porcelain or glass insulators. 

Moisture proof and non-inflammable tubing may be accepted in lieu of 
such construction. 

No switches or fusible cut-outs will be allowed in such places. 

Interior Conduits must not be: 

1. Combustible. 

2. Of such material as will be injured or destroyed by plaster or 
cement, or of such material as will injure the insulation of the conductor. 

3. So constructed or placed that difficulty will be experienced in re- 
moving or replacing the conductors. 

4. Subject to mechanical injury by saws, chisels or nails. 

5. Supplied with a twin conductor in a single tube where a current of 
more than 10 amperes is expected. 

6. Depended upon for insulation. The conductors must be covered 
with moisture-proof material. 

The object of a tube or conduit is to facilitate the insertion or extrac- 
tion of the conductors, to protect them from mechanical injury, and, as far 
as possible from moisture. 

Twin tube conductors must not be separated from each other by rub- 
ber or similar material, but by cotton or other readily carbonizable sub- 
stance. 

Conductors passing through walls or ceilings must be encased in a 
suitable tubing, which must extend at least one inch beyond the finished 
surface until the mortar or other similar material be entirely drj--, when the 
projection may be reduced to half an inch. 
DouBivB PoLB Safety Cut-outs must be: 

1. Placed where the overhead or underground conductors enter a 
building and join the inside wires. 

2. Placed at every point where a changeismade in the size of the wire 
(unless the cut-out in the larger wire will protect the smaller). This in- 
cludes all the flexible conductors. All such junctions must be in plain 
sight. 

3. Constructed with bases of non-combustible and moisture proof 
material. 

4. So constructed and placed that an arc cannot be maintained be- 
tween the terminals by the fusing of the metal. 

5. So placed that on any combination fixture, no group of lamps re- 
quiring a current of six amperes or more shall be ultimately dependent 
upon one cut-out. 



ELECTRICITY. 



475 



6, Wherever used for more than six amperes, or where the plug or 
equivalent device is not used, equipped with fusible strips or wires provided 
with contact surfaces or tips of harder metal, soldered or otherwise having 
perfect electrical connection with the fusible part of the strip. 

Safety Fuses must be so proportioned to the conductors they are 
intended to protect, that they will melt before the maximum safe carrying 
capacity of the wire is exceeded. 

All fuses, where possible, must be stamped or otherwise marked with 
the number of amperes equal to the safe carrying capacity of the wire 
they protect. 

All cut-out blocks when installed must be similarly marked. 

The safe carrying capacitj^ of a wire changes under different circum- 
stances, being about forty percent less when the wire is closed in a tube or 
piece of moulding, than when bare and exposed to the air, when the heat 
is rapidly radiated. It must be clearly understood that the size of the fuse 
depends upon the size of the smallest conductor it protects, and not upon 
the amount of current to be used on the circuit. Below is a table showing 
the safe carrying capacity of conductors of different sizes in Birmingham, 
Brown & Sharpe, and Edison gauges, which must be followed in the plac- 
ing of interior conductors: 



Brown & 


Sharpe. 


Birmingham. 


:Edison 


Standaed. 


Gauge No. 


Amperes. 


Gauge No. 


Amperes. 


Gauge No. 


Amperes. 


0000 


175 


0000 


175 


200 


175 


000 


145 


000 


150 


180 


160 


00. 


120 


00 


130 


140 


135 





100 





100 


110 


110 


1 


95 


1 


95 


90 


95 


2 


70 


2 


85 


80 


85 


3 


60 


3 


75 


65 


75 


4 


50 


4 


65 


55 


65 


5 


45 


5 


60 


50 


60 


6 


35 


6 


50 


40 


50 


. 7 


30 


7 


45 


30 


40 


8 


25 


8 


35 


25 


35 


10 


20 


10 


30 


20 


30 


12 


15 


12 


20 


12 


20 


14 


10 


14 


15 


8 


15 


16 


5 


16 


10 


5 


10 






18 


5 


3 


5 



Switches — Must: 

1. Be mounted on moisture proofand incombustible bases, such as slate 
or porcelain. 

2. Be double pole when the circuits which they control are connected 
to fixtures attached to gas pipes, and when six amperes or more are to 
pass through them. ^ 

3. Have a firm and secure contact, must make and break readily, 
and not stick when motion has once been imparted by the handle. 

4. Have carrying capacity sufficient to prevent heating above the sur- 
rounding atmosphere. 

5. Be placed in dry, accessible places, and grouped as far as pos- 



476 ELECTRICITY. 



sible, being mounted, when practicable, upon slate or equally indestructible 
back boards. 

Motors. — In wiring for motive power, the same precautions must be 
taken as with the current of the same volume and potential for lighting. 
The motor and resistance box must be protected by a double pole cut-out, 
and controlled by a double pole switch. 
Arc Lights on Low Potential Circuits — Must be : 

1. Supplied by branch conductors not smaller than No. 12 B. & S. 
gauge. 

2. Connected with main conductors only through double pole cut- 
outs. 

3. Only furnished with such resistances of regulators as are en- 
closed in non-combustible material, such resistances being treated as sources 
of heat. 

4. Supplied with globes protected as in the case of arc lights on high 
potential circuits. 

FIXTURE WORK. 

1. In all cases where conductors are concealed within, or attached 
to fixtures, the latter must be insulated from the gas pipe system of the 
building. 

2. When wired outside, the conductors must be so secured as not 
to be cut or abraded by the pressure of the fastenings, or motion of the 
fixtures. 

3. All conductors for fixture work must have a w^ater-proof insulation 
that is durable and not easily abraded, and must not in any case be smaller 
than No. 16 B & S., No. 18 B. W. G., or No. 3 E. S. G. 

4. All burrs or fins must be removed before the conductors are drawn 
into a fixture. 

5. The tendency to condensation within the pipes must be guarded 
against by sealing the upper end of the fixture. 

6. No combination fixture in which the conductors are concealed in a 
space less than one-fourth inch between the inside pipe and the outside cas- 
ing w^ill be approved. 

7. Each fixture must be tested for possible "contacts" between con- 
ductors and fixtures, and for "short circuit, "before the fixture is connected 
to its supply conductors. 

8. The ceiling blocks of fixtures should be made of insulating ma- 
terial. 

KLECTRIC GAS LIGHTING. 

Where electric gas lighting is to be used on the same fixture with the 
electric light: 

1. No part of the gas piping or fixture shall be in electrical connection 
with the gas lighting circuit. 

2. The wires used with the fixture must have a non-inflammable in- 
sulation, or, where concealed between the pipes and shell of the fixture, the 
insulation must be such as is required for fixture wiring for the electric 
light. 

3. The whole installation must test free from "grounds. " 



ELECTRICITY. 477 



4. The two installations must test perfectly free of connection with 
each other. 

PENDANTS AND SOCKETS. 

No portion of the lamp socket exposed to contact with outside objects 
must be allowed to come into electrical contact with either of the con- 
ductors. 

Cord Pendants— Must be: 

1. Made of conductors, each of which is composed of several strands 
insulated from the other conductor by a mechanical separator of carboniz- 
able material, and both surrounded in damp places with a moisture-proof 
and a non-inflammable layer. 

2. Protected by insulating bushings where the cord enters the socket. 

3. So suspended that the entire weight of the socket and lamp will be 
borne by knots, above the point where the cord comes through the ceiling 
block or rosette, in order that the strain may be taken from the joints and 
binding screws. All sockets used for wire or cord pendants should have 
openings at least equal to one-quarter inch gas pipe size. 

4. Allowed to sustain nothing heavier than a four-light cluster, and in 
such a case special provision should be made by an extra heavy cord or 
wire, as a mechanical reinforcement. 

5. Equipped with keyless sockets as far as practicable, controlled by 
wall switches. In no case may a lamp giving more than fifty (50) candle 
power be placed in a key socket on a flexible pendant. 

CLASS D. — ALTERNATING SYSTEMS. 
CONVERTERS OR TRANSFORMERS. 

Converters — Must not: 

1. Be placed inside of any building except the central station, unless as 
hereinafter provided. 

2. Be placed in any but metallic or non-combustible cases. 

3. Be attached to the outside walls of buildings, unless separated there- 
from b^^ substantial insulating supports. 

4. Be placed in any other than a dry and convenient location (which 
can be secured from opening into the interior of the building, such as a 
vault) when an underground service is used. 

5. Be placed without safety fuses at the junction between main and ser- 
vice conductors and safety fuses in the secondary circuits where they will 
not be affected by the heat of the converter. 

PRLMARY CONDUCTORS. 

In those cases where it may not be possible to exclude the transformers 
and primary wires entirely from the building, the following precautions 
must be strictly observed: 

1. The transformer must be located at a point as near as possible to 
that at which the primary wires enter the building. 

2. Between these points the conductors must be heavily insulated with 
a coating of moisture-proof material, and in addition, must be so covered 



478 ELECTRICITY. 



and protected that mechanical injury to them or contact with them shall 
be practically impossible. 

3. The primary conductors, if within a building, must be furnished 
with a double-pole switch, and also with an automatic double-pole cut-out 
where the wires enter the building, or where they leave the main line on the 
pole or in the conduit. These switches should if possible, be enclosed in se- 
cure and fireproof boxes outside the building. 

4. The primary conductors, when inside a building, must be kept 
apart at least ten inches, and the same distance from all other conducting 
bodies. 

SECONDARY CONDUCTORS. 

The conductors from the secondary coil of the transformer to the lamps, 
or other translating devices must be installed according to the rules for 
"inside wiring" for "Low Potential Systems." 

CLASS E. — ELECTRIC RAILWAYS. 
POWER STATIONS. 
All rules pertaining to arc light wires and stations shall apply (so far 
as practicable) to street railwaj^ power stations and their conductors. 

RAILWAY SYSTEMS WITH GROUND RETURN. 

Electric railway systems in which the motor cars are driven by a cur- 
rent from a single wire, with ground or floor return circuit, are prohibited, 
except as hereinafter provided: 

1. When there is no liability of other conductors coming in contact 
with the trolley wire. 

2. When the location of the generator is such that the ground circuit 
will not create a fire hazard to the property. 

3. When an improved automatic circuit breaker or other device that 
will immediately cut off the current in case the trolley wires become 
grouded, is introduced in each circuit as it leaves the power station. This 
device must be mounted on a fire-proof base, and be in full view of the at- 
tendant. 

TROLLEY WIRES. 

Trolley Wires— Must be: 

1. No smaller than No. B. & S., copper, or No. 4 B. & S., silicon 
bronze, and must readily stand the strain put upon them when in use. 

2. Well insulated from their supports, and in case of the side or 
double-pole construction, the supports shall also be insulated from the 
poles immediately outside the trolley wire. 

3. Capable of being disconnected at the power house, or of being di- 
vided into sections, so that in case of fire on the railway route, the current 
may be shut ofi" from the particular section and not interfere with the work 
of the firemen in extinguishing the flames. This rule also applies to feeders. 

4. Safely protected against contact with all other conductors. 

CAR WIRING. 

All wires in cars must be run out of reach of the passengers, and shall 
be insulated with a water-proof insulation. 



ELECTRICITY. 479 



LIGHTING AND RAILWAY POWER WIRES. 

Lighting and power wires must not be permitted in the same circuit 
with trolley wires with a ground return, except in street railway cars, car 
houses, and power stations. The same dynamo may be used for both pur- 
poses, provided the connection from the dynamo for each circuit shall be a 
double-pole switch so arranged that only one of the circuits can be in use 
at the same time. 

CLASS F. — BATTERIES. 

When current for light and power is taken from primary or secondary 
batteries, the same general regulations must be observed as apply to such 
wires fed from dynamo generators, developing the same difference of 
potential. 

CLASS G. — MISCELLANEOUS. 

1. The wiring in any building must test free from "grounds" before the 
current is turned on. This test may be made with a magneto that will 
ring through a resistance of 20,000 ohms, where currents of less than 250 
volts are used, 

2. No ground wires for lightning arresters may be attached to gas 
pipes within the building. 

3. All conductors connecting with telephone, district messenger, burglar 
alarm, watch clock, electric time and other similar instruments must, if in 
any portion of their length they are liable to become crossed with circuits 
carrying currents for light or power, be provided near the point of entrance 
to the building with some protective device which will operate to shunt the 
instruments in case of a dangerous rise of potential, and will open the cir- 
cuit and arrest an abnormal current flow. Any conductor normally form- 
ing an innocuous circuit may become a source of fire hazard if crossed with 
another conductor through which it may become charged with a relatively 
high pressure. (Signed) 

A. J. DeCamp, Chairman; M. D. Law, Stephen E. Barton, Wm. 
Brophy, T. Carpenter Smith. 

Certain questions have come before the committee, which they consid- 
ered of too great importance to be decided at this stage. Among these are 
the subjects of the grounding of the neutral wire in compensating or three- 
wire systems — the grounding, either permanently or through automatic 
cut-outs, of the secondary wires in transformer systems — the adoption of a 
uniform alloy for fusible cut-outs — and the adoption of better methods for 
testing circuits. 

From the nature of the electrical business and the rapid advance it is 
making, there must, of necessity, questions continually arise which can only 
be decided by a later and larger experience, therefore the object of the asso- 
ciation w^ould be best served by the appointment of a permanent committee 
to whom should be referred all such questions, which they shall consider 
and report upon at the next succeeding meeting of the association. 

Your committee, therefore, offer the following : 

Resolved: That a committee of five be appointed by the president, to 
be a permanent committee on safe methods of construction and operation 



480 ELECTRICITY. 



— any vacancies that may occur on the committee from time to time to be 
filled by the president. (Signed) (Committee) 

Wm. McDevitt, T. Carpenter Smith, Wm. Brophy, M. D. Law. 
Note. — In compiling this chapter on electrical matters, the Westing- 
house Electric Company, the Electrical Supply Company, of Chicago, the 
Popular Electric Monthly, of Chicago, and John A. Grier, of Philadelphia, 
have furnished copyrighted matter from their publications. T. G. G. 




